COSMO ontology, Version 0.58-790. Last edit 20090317 by Patrick Cassidy Has 21 top-level classes under 'Thing' Uses elements of the OpenCyc OWL version 0.78, SUMO, BFO and DOLCE ontologies, as well as elements created specifically for COSMO. Parts of COSMO were derived from or closely aligned with elements of other public ontologies such as OpenCyc, SUMO, and BFO,in order to ease the translation of COSMO ontologies to those other structures, but the conceptual structure of COSMO (hierarchy and relations) is too different from those other ontologies to allow simplistic automatic translation; it is anticipated that translation will be possible, but will require 'bridging axioms' to convert the terms and syntax of COSMO to those of any other ontology, and vice-versa. The meanings of the COSMO elements must be interpreted only from the structure of the COSMO ontology and from the full COSMO documentation. From the documentation of those other ontologies, they are freely usable by the public, though they remain copyrighted by their originators (more detail below). No copyright restrictions are attached to materials added in the COSMO project, therefore the only copyright restrictions for use of this ontology are those placed by the developers of the OpenCyc, SUMO, and BFO on parts derived directly from those works. Those derived parts will include some of the labels, and parts of the documentation. Relation of COSMO to other ontologies: The COSMO ontology has a structure and basic viewpoint that differs in some significant parts from that of the ontologies from which it has derived materials, and the main parts of the hierarchical structure and relations are not significantly derived from any of the referenced ontologies. Most basically, the representations were intended to adhere as closely as possible to linguistic intuitions about the meaning and usage of English terms, while specifying the meanings in a logically precise manner. Every element added to COSMO is individually evaluated for its utility and validity within the conceptual structure of the COSMO ontology, and is not derived or adopted solely or mainly on the basis of the appearance of a similar concept in another ontology. Certain individual subtype relations are similar to those in OpenCyc or SUMO; but because the basic hierarchical structure of COSMO differs from the other ontologies, logical inference using these relations will arrive at conclusions that cannot be aligned directly with either OpenCyc or SUMO. No simplistic mapping between COSMO and these other ontologies is likely to enable accurate inference. The documentation derived from OpenCyc and SUMO is provided as a means to reference similar concepts in those other ontologies, and to explain similarities and differences, for the convenience of those who are familiar with those ontologies. Contents derived from OpenCyc and SUMO are copyrighted and made freely available for public use under the terms found in the documentation for those works (see below). Materials added specifically for the COSMO project are not copyrighted. The contents derived from SUMO are copyrighted by the IEEE and made freely available for public use. For more detail see: see http://www.ontologyportal.org A description of the SUMO project can be found in: Niles, I., and Pease, A. 2001. Towards a Standard Upper Ontology. In Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Formal Ontology in Information Systems (FOIS-2001), Chris Welty and Barry Smith, eds, Ogunquit, Maine, October 17-19, 2001. The Contents of the OpenCyc OWL version used in this project are found at: http://www.cyc.com/2004/06/04/cyc OpenCyc materials are copyrighted and licensed for free public use under the GNU 'LGPL' license. The Opencyc documentation reads: ************ OpenCyc copyright notice ****************** Copyright Information OpenCyc Knowledge Base Copyright 2001-2004 Cycorp, Inc., Austin, TX, USA. All rights reserved. OpenCyc Knowledge Server Copyright 2001-2004 Cycorp, Inc., Austin, TX, USA. All rights reserved. Other copyrights may be found in various files. The OpenCyc Knowledge Base The OpenCyc Knowledge Base consists of code, written in the declarative language CycL, that represents or supports the representation of facts and rules pertaining to consensus reality. OpenCyc is licensed using the GNU Lesser General Public License, whose text can also be found on this volume. The OpenCyc CycL code base is the "library" referred to in the LGPL license. The terms of this license equally apply to renamings and other logically equivalent reformulations of the Knowledge Base (or portions thereof) in any natural or formal language. See http://www.opencyc.org for more information. ************ OpenCyc copyright notice ****************** Definitions described as coming from the 'Random House Webster' (RHW) refer to the Electronic Dictionary 'Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary' on CD (2002) from Random House, Inc. and Multimedia 2000 Inc.(a paperback version is still available at: http://www.randomhouse.com/category/reference/) Some of the entries have annotation references to WordNet ('wordnet' and 'wnsense' relations). The WordNet version referenced is WordNet 2.1 (see http://wordnet.princeton.edu/). Because the WordNet hierarchy differs from that of COSMO, these pointers are only informative, and may not be useful for accurate automatic conversion of WordNet sense tags to the corresponding senses in COSMO, but the utility of this mapping needs to be investigated. InheritableType is a specialization of the Protege owl:Class which is used to identify those metatypes which, when specified as the parent Type for some class (Type) in the ontology, will also by implication be the parent Type for all subtypes of any Type explicitly designated as an instance of any subtype of 'InheritableType'. This is a primitive mechanism to permit translation of this ontology among various formats, while permitting the use of reasoning engines which require that arguments to relations, if restricted as to Type, be instances of some specified Type. There are some ontologies, such as SUMO, using first-order logic, which permit one to specify that an argument to a relation must be a *subtype* of some Type in the ontology, rather than an *instance* of some Type. OWL and some other reasoning engines do not permit that kind of restriction. For convenience, to allow this ontology to be used in multiple reasoning engines and to be automatically translated into multiple formats, this metatype is provided and so that one can avoid having to specify the metatype instance of every Type that is to be used as an argument to a relation. When using this ontology in an inference engine that requires explicit types, it will be necessary to add the InheritableType as a Type of each subtype of any Type that is specified to be an instance of such an inheritable type. That addition will have to be one in a preprocessing stage before using that inference engine. An axiom may be added to an ontology using FOL to specify that all subtypes of a Type ?T that is an instance of an InheritableType ?MT will also be instances of that InheritableType: (=> (and (isanInstanceOf ?T ?MT) (isaSubclassOf ?MT InheritableType)) (forall (?ST) (=> (isaSubclassOf ?ST ?T) (isanInstanceOf ?ST ?MT)))) This axiom will permit the ontologist to avoid specifying the metatype for every subtype of the root type of that Type tree, in those ontology implementations that can use FOL. RoleType is a metaclass used as the Type restriction on certain relations that take subclasses of Role as their argument. 'QuantifierType' is a metaclass used as the Type restriction on certain relations that take subclasses of Quantifier as their argument. AttributeValueType is a metaclass used as the Type restriction on certain relations that take subclasses of AttributeValue as their argument. a metatype that can be used as an argument restriction for relations that take a subtype of Difference as one of their arguments.. QualitativeAttributeType is a metatype which is a specialization of the Protege owl:Class that can serve as type for taste attributes and an argument restriction for some relations on QualitativeAttributes. This is a primitive mechanism to accommodate OWL limitations. IntensiveAttributeValueType is a metaclass used as the Type restriction on certain relations that take subclasses of IntensiveAttributeValue as their argument. a metatype that can be used as an argument restriction for relations that take a subtype of Event as one of their arguments.. a metatype that can be used as an argument restriction for relations that take a subtype of Event as one of their arguments. This is used specifically for the restriction on 'InsuranceAgreement'. Each instance of InsuredEventType is a type of Event that commonly is insured against in some InsuranceAgreement. Many kinds of Events *can* in principle be insured against, but this metatype is for those types of Events that *commonly* are insured against, or actually *have been* insured against, in some aplication that uses this ontology. ObjectType is a metatype which is a specialization of the Protege owl:Class that can serve as type for objects, whether abstract or physical, and an argument restriction for various relations on Object types. This is a primitive mechanism to accommodate OWL limitations on relation arguments. 'TimeIntervalType is a metatype which is a specialization of the Protege owl:Class that can serve as type for TimeIntervals, and can and an argument restriction for various relations on TimeInterval types. This is a primitive mechanism to accommodate OWL limitations on relation arguments. PhysicalObjectType is a metatype which is a specialization of the Protege owl:Class that can serve as type for physical objects and an argument restriction for various relations on Physical Object types. This is a primitive mechanism to accommodate OWL limitations on relation arguments. RuleType is a metatype which is a specialization of 'ObjectType' that can serve as type for Rules (laws, theories) and an argument restriction for various relations on Rule types. This is a primitive mechanism to accommodate OWL limitations on relation arguments. 'PropositionType' is a metatype which is a specialization of the Protege owl:Class that can serve as type for Propositions and an argument restriction for various relations on Propositions types. This is a primitive mechanism to accommodate OWL limitations on relation arguments. Globally unique identifier, fromOpenCyc 0.78. NOTE that this is a formatted string having 32 alphanumberic characters with embedded hyphens, though it is represented (temporarily) as a simple string here. Another form of 'unique identifier' has 16 characters, and is represented in COSMO as an AbstractString which is a subtype of Identifier. See 'UniqueIdentifier16' Globally Unique ID Each class of a ColorAttribute forms a region with more specific classes of ColorAttribute forming subregions.. ElementType is a metatype which is a specialization of the Protege owl:Class that can serve as type for physical substances and an argument restriction for the relation s on chemical elments. This is a primitive mechanism to accommodate OWL limitations on relation arguments. a metatype that can be used as an argument restriction for relations that take a subtype of Context as one of their arguments. IT can also be used for types for which namespace prefixes would be convenient to label the instances, such as 'AtomicSymbol'.. A collection of collections and a specialization of #$ChemicalSubstanceType. Each instance of #$ChemicalCompoundTypeByChemicalSpecies is a specialization of #$PartiallyTangible whose instances are defined _only_ by their chemical composition - not by their physical state or any other property. Instances of #$ChemicalCompoundTypeByChemicalSpecies are collections whose instances are completely uniform with each other in terms of chemical structure, e.g., #$Water, #$Caffeine, and #$IronOxide. This collection does not include the chemical elements - such as #$Carbon and #$Oxygen, since there can be multiple types that molecules can be formed out of a single element, e.g. O2 and #$Ozone. Use the broader collection, #$ChemicalSubstanceType, for substances which have a general chemical specification, that is, whose instances do not have exactly the same chemical composition but fall within certain specifications, e.g., #$DNAStuff. bd40a83e-da13-41d6-9955-dc363ad8ec02 VitalityAttributeType is a metatype which is a specialization of the Protege owl:Class that can serve as type for attributes specifyuing vitality (alive, dead) and an argument restriction for some relations on QualitativeAttributes. This is a primitive mechanism to accommodate OWL limitations. AttributeTypeType is a metatype which is a specialization of the Protege owl:Class that can serve as type for AttributeTypes (length, mass), and an argument restriction for various relations on AttributeType types. This is a primitive mechanism to accommodate OWL limitations on relation arguments. a metatype that can be used as an argument restriction for relations that take a subtype of Agent as one of their arguments. All Organisms, plant, animal, microorganism, are of AgentType. MeasurableQuantityType is a metatype which is a specialization of the Protege owl:Class that can serve as type for MeasurableQuantities, whether abstract or physical, and an argument restriction for various relations on MeasurableQuantity types. This is a primitive mechanism to accommodate OWL limitations on relation arguments. ShapeType is a metatype which is a specialization of the Protege owl:Class that can serve as type for shape attributes and an argument restriction for the hasShape relation. This is a primitive mechanism to accommodate OWL limitations. NOTE: as of v0.50, both shape attributes and specifically shaped objects can be instances of ShapeType. @ToDo - this should probably be differentiated. a metatype that can be used as an argument restriction for relations that take an instance of Pattern as one of their arguments. OrganismObjectType is a metatype which is a specialization of the Protege owl:Class that can serve as type for LifeForms (including LifeForms that are not true Organisms) and an argument restriction for various relations on specific types of organisms. This is a primitive mechanism to accommodate OWL limitations on relation arguments. PersonType is a metatype which is a specialization of OrganismType that can serve as type for a Person in its aspect as an animal, rather than a Role, and an argument restriction for various relations on people. This is a primitive mechanism to accommodate OWL limitations on relation arguments. RoleType is a metaclass that is a subclass of both 'PersonType' and 'RoleType'. It is used as the Type restriction on certain relations that take subclasses of HumanRole as their argument. PlantType is a metatype which is a specialization of OrganismType that can serve as type for a Plant. This is a primitive mechanism to accommodate OWL limitations on relation arguments. AnimalType is a metatype which is a specialization of OrganismType that can serve as type for an Animal. This is a primitive mechanism to accommodate OWL limitations on relation arguments. ActionType is a metaclass used as the Type restriction on certain relations that take subclasses of Action as their argument. COSMO note: this metatype has not been used up to v0.54. It includes all actions that need some kind of training beyond mere observation and repetition. Things that need years of training are represented as 'SkilledActivityType'. Inn Chinese, there is a difference in the words used to say one 'knows' how to do somnething, if that thing is learned or not learned (like knowing a person). This seems to be a fundamental and intuitive difference. AN examole is knowing how to speak Chinese. Cyc: This is the collection of activities which must first be learned before they can be performed - i.e., before any role which is a specPred of #$doneBy can be played. be6f173a-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 COSMO note: this metatype has not been used up to v0.54. It may be used to help classify actions that require years of training. This differs from the Cyc interpretation. Cyc: This is the collection of collections of activities which require some specialized skill to perform--i.e., to play any role which is a specPred of #$doneBy. So, all skilled activities are learned, but not all learned activities are skilled. For instance, #$WalkingOnTwoLegs is an instance of #$LearnedActivityType but not an instance of #$SkilledActivityType. Since every normal person learns to walk, it requires no special skill. In contrast, #$Juggling is an instance of #$SkilledActivityType, for most people do not know how to juggle. bdb56b97-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 CommunicationType is a metaclass used as the Type restriction on certain relations that take subclasses of Communication as their argument. a metatype that can be used as an argument restriction for relations that take a subtype of Feeling as one of their arguments.. a metatype that can be used as an argument restriction for relations that take a subtype of Sign as one of their arguments.. a metatype that can be used as an argument restriction for relations that take a subtype of SystemCondition as one of their arguments.. a metatype that can be used as an argument restriction for relations that take a subtype of AilmentCondition as one of their arguments.. a metatype that can be used as an argument restriction for relations that take a subtype of ValuableThing as one of their arguments.. OrganizationType is a metaclass used as the Type restriction on certain relations that take subclasses of Organization as their argument. A collection of three disjoint collections, #$OrganizationWithBusinessCustomers, #$OrganizationWithIndividualCustomers, and #$OrganizationWithoutCustomers. The #$Organizations that are instances of the collections which are instances of #$OrganizationByClients are distinguished by the types of customers they serve or by their lack of customers (customers being used here in the sense of #$customers). c0861d7f-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 TendencyType is a metatype that can be used as an argument restriction for relations that take a subtype of Tendency as one of their arguments. This metaclass is of importance in predicting behaviors over time, and may require probability assignments; therefore is is considered distinct and not a subtype of 'QualitativeAttributeType'.. CapabilityType is a metaclass used as the Type restriction on certain relations that take subclasses of Capability as their argument. LimitationType is a metaclass used as the Type restriction on certain relations that take subclasses of Limitation as their argument. TransportationDeviceType is a metaclass used as the Type restriction on certain relations involving TransportationDevices. MeasureType is a metatype which is a specialization of rdfs:Class that can serve as type for measures and an argument restriction for relations concerning types of measure (Length, Temperature, Color). MeasureType instances may be either AttributeTypes or AttributeValues. It may be better to distingish the two, but as of v. 0.46, the same metaclass is used for the two different aspects of quantitative attributes. This is a primitive mechanism to accommodate OWL limitations on relation arguments. HabitatType is a metatype which is a specialization of the Protege owl:Class that can serve as type for regions or physical areas with particular characteristics, and can serve as an argument restriction for the relation 'hasTypicalHabitat' OrganismTypes. This is a primitive mechanism to accommodate OWL limitations on relation arguments. LifeStageType is a metaclass used as the Type restriction on certain relations that pertain to organisms at particular stages of their life cycle. The collection of collections of things that are useful in nature. c0c73787-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A specialization of #$ChemicalCompoundTypeByChemicalSpecies. Instances of #$LigandType are collections whose instances are substances capable of surrounding and bonding to a central metal ion, forming a metal complex (or simply complex). In forming a complex, the ligands are considered to coordinate to the metal. 3bc47b54-3937-41d7-9033-bdfc2024a247 OccupationalRoleType is a metaclass used as the Type restriction on certain relations that pertain to Types describing people in occupational roles, such as 'Nurse', 'Firefighter'.. CoveringType is a metatype which is a specialization of the Protege owl:Class that can serve as type for physical objects that are subtypes of 'Covering-Object', and an argument restriction for various relations on CoveringObject types. This is a primitive mechanism to accommodate OWL limitations on relation arguments. ContainerType is a metatype which is a specialization of the Protege owl:Class that can serve as type for containers and an argument restriction for various relations on container types. This is a primitive mechanism to accommodate OWL limitations on relation arguments. PlantPartType is a metatype which is a specialization of the Protege owl:Class that can serve as type for plant parts and an argument restriction for various relations on parts of plants. This is a primitive mechanism to accommodate OWL limitations on relation arguments. Each instance of 'ServiceType' is a type that represents a service that some perosn performs for another, often for pay. A Service does not have to be performed for pay every time, but must be performed for pay in some cases. TopicType is a metaclass used as the Type restriction on fields of knowledge, whether formal or informal. This type allows assertions about a whole field, as in the relation 'isKnowledgeableAbout'. VolumeType is a metatype which is a specialization of the Protege owl:Class that can serve as type for volume attributes. This is a primitive mechanism to accommodate OWL limitations. a metatype that can be used as an argument restriction for relations that take an instance of a transitive Event (an Event that has a 'patient' role, something acted on) as one of their arguments.. a metatype that can be used as an argument restriction for relations that take a subtype of FunctionalProcess as one of their arguments.. COSMO: a metatype for flowering trees. Cyc: Not itself a species, but a set of species encompassing those that are angiosperms. bd588f16-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A collection of collections and a specialization of #$OrganismClassificationType (q.v.). Instances of #$BiologicalTaxon correspond to ranked categories accepted by biologists for the classification of organisms according to their suspected evolutionary relationships. Such categories change as biologists learn more about the organisms involved and determine that existing classifications are more or less useful. They include all levels of taxons. Specializations of #$BiologicalTaxon include #$BiologicalOrder and #$BiologicalSpecies; instances include #$Marsupial and #$Ape. See also #$BiologicalTaxonType. bd58e2e8-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 The collection of biological taxonomic subdivisions (see #$BiologicalTaxon) created below #$BiologicalFamily and above #$BiologicalSpecies. Sometimes, hybrids are possible between different instances of #$BiologicalSpecies that belong to the same #$BiologicalGenus. bd589a9f-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A specialization of #$BiologicalTaxon whose instances are more restrictive than those of #$BiologicalSpecies. Each instance of #$BiologicalSubspecies is a specialization of some instance of #$BiologicalSpecies. Members of different subspecies of the same species can produce fertile offspring by interbreeding; but such offspring are not members of either of the parental subspecies, although they are members of the common species. All instances of a given biological subspecies have significant traits or collections of traits in common that are not shared by all other members of the subsuming species. A #$BiologicalSubspecies is formed by inbreeding of a restricted group of members of the same species. This can happen naturally through geographic isolation or intentionally through controlled reproduction to create, for example, dog breeds or crop strains. c0b6222b-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A GrammaticalType is any structure (word, phrase, phoneme, morpheme) in a NaturalLanguage that, in combination with other structures constitues the grammar of the language, as represented in some grammatical theory of the language. Examples would be 'Subject', 'Verb', 'Object', 'VerbPhrase', etc. a BiologicalSubspecies that is or maintained by human breeding activities. See 'Breeding'. This corresponds to sense 13 of 'breed' in the random House Webster: 13. Genetics. a relatively homogenous group of animals within a species, developed and maintained by humans. This should be a subtype of 'variety' as used in the biological classification sense, but the owl:class (Types) and rdfs:class (Metatypes) hierarchy needs to be kept apart for clarity. Se 'Type' and 'Sort' for more detail on which COSMO type represents which sort of category. The collection of biological taxonomic subdivisions below #$BiologicalOrder (or #$BiologicalSuborder) and above #$BiologicalGenus. Especially important in Botanical classification. bd58cb2c-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 a metatype that can be used as an argument restriction for relations that take a subtype of PhysiologicalCondition as one of their arguments. NOTE that illness (sickness, disease, ailment) is a subtype of PhysiologicalCondition, and this metatype can be used for relations on types of illness. NOTE that a 'PhysiologicalConditionType' is a subtype of 'ActionType' because it is 'performed' by an Agent, which is an Organism. a metatype that can be used as an argument restriction for relations that take a subtype of Money as one of their arguments. Instances of MoneyType can be abstract or physical. A specialization of #$FirstOrderCollection (q.v.) whose instances are collections of #$Events. Each instance of #$RepeatedEventType is a collection of events whose instances tend to come in series or to occur at more or less regular intervals. These series or recurrences might be the result of natural phenomena (e.g. the spoutings of Old Faithful), human convention (e.g. the occurrence of #$BaseballInnings within a given game), or a combination of both (e.g. the annual celebration of Oktoberfest). An important specialization of this collection is #$RegularlyRepeatedEventType. See also #$IterativeEvent and #$IterativeEventType. bd5900b9-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A specialization of #$RepeatedEventType (q.v.). Each instance of #$RegularlyRepeatedEventType is a collection of events whose instances typically occur along with other instances of the same event-type at more or less regular intervals. These regular occurrences might be the result of natural phenomena (e.g. the sunrise), human convention (e.g. the execution of a dance step within a given dancing event), or a combination of both (e.g. the annual celebration of Oktoberfest). Other examples of #$RegularlyRepeatedEventType are #$OlympicGames, #$AcademicTerm, and #$TakingABreath. See also #$IterativeEvent and #$IterativeEventType. bd590072-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A LexicalType is any structure (word, phrase, phoneme, morpheme) in a NaturalLanguage that, has a distinctie pattern of letters in its alphabetical representation. An example would be an Abbreviation. BiologicalSpecies is a metatype that can be used as an argument restriction for relations that take an instance of biological species as one of their arguments. Cyc: An instance of #$BiologicalTaxonType. Each instance of #$BiologicalSpecies is the most general taxon from which two breeding organisms of appropriate sexes can conceivably produce fertile offspring, or, in the case of asexual reproduction, is conventionally defined. Members of different species of animals cannot produce fertile offspring by interbreeding. If there are only two breeds of a given species and one breed becomes extinct, the second breed by virtue of that fact becomes an instance of #$BiologicalSpecies - since the only organisms instances can breed with to produce fertile offspring are, at that point, members of that collection. An instance of #$BiologicalSpecies has members who all have significant traits in common, and members of each biological species have other members as parents. Exceptions occur when a species is conventionally defined to start since parenthood could conceivably be traced back billions of years, yet new species came into existence. In biological taxonomy, related species are grouped into a particular instance of #$BiologicalGenus. Some genera have only a single species, but they remain different taxons. SUMO: The Class of all biological species, i.e. the class of all classes of Organism whose instances can interbreed. Corresponds to noun sense 1 of 'species' in WordNet: 1. (27) species - ((biology) taxonomic group whose members can interbreed) bd58caeb-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 COSMO note: in COSMO, 'EndangeredSpecies' is a metatype whose instances are BiologicalSpecies whose survival as aspecies is at risk. SUMO: EndangeredSpecies is the subclass of Organism that includes plants and animals that are in danger of extinction from destruction of individuals or of habitat. This is a primitive mechanism to accommodate OWL limitations on relation arguments. RegionType is a metatype which is a specialization of the Protege owl:Class that can serve as type for regions, and an argument restriction for various relations on Region types. This is a primitive mechanism to accommodate OWL limitations on relation arguments. MeasuringDeviceType is a metatype which is a specialization of the Protege owl:Class that can serve as type for MeasuringDevices, and an argument restriction for various relations on MeasuringDevice types. This is a primitive mechanism to accommodate OWL limitations on relation arguments. SpecificationType is a metatype which is a specialization of the Protege owl:Class that can serve as type for specifications (plays, plans, games) and an argument restriction for the isAnExecutionOf relation. This is a primitive mechanism to accommodate OWL limitations on relation arguments. SportType is a metatype which is a specialization of the Protege owl:Class that can serve as type for specifications of sports (games) and an argument restriction for the isAnExecutionOf relation. This is a primitive mechanism to accommodate OWL limitations on relation arguments. GameType is a metatype which is a specialization of the Protege owl:Class that can serve as type for games and an argument restriction for the isAnExecutionOf relation. This is a primitive mechanism to accommodate OWL limitations on relation arguments. PharmaceuticalType is a metaclass used as the Type restriction on certain relations that pertain to more or less well-defined chemical substances that are used officially (in some society) as a medicine.. a metatype that can be used as an argument restriction for relations that take an instance of FacialHair as one of their arguments.. OccupationType is a metaclass used as the Type restriction on certain relations that pertain to Occupations, such as 'isTheOccupationOfa' and 'practicesOccupation'. NOTE that this must not be used as the Type of people who have ocupations. For that, use 'OccupationalRoleType'. Each instance of MoneyTenderType denotes a form in which some quantity of Money may be representged. A collection of collections. Each instance of #$MoneyTenderType is a collection of objects of a type commonly offered in payment for goods, services, fees, wage-work, and so on. Notable instances of #$MoneyTenderType include #$Currency, #$CreditCard, and #$Check-TenderObject. bd58d8e4-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 The collection of biological taxonomic subdivisions more specific than #$BiologicalClass but more general than #$BiologicalOrder. bd58cba7-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 SubstanceShapeType is a metatype which is a specialization of the Protege owl:Class that can serve as type for physical substances in a particular shape 'SubstanceInaSpecificShape' and an argument restriction for the isaFormOfSubstance relation. This is a primitive mechanism to accommodate OWL limitations on relation arguments. TasteType is a metatype which is a specialization of the Protege owl:Class that can serve as type for taste attributes and an argument restriction for the hasTaste relation. This is a primitive mechanism to accommodate OWL limitations. LocationMeasureType is a metatype which is a specialization of the Protege owl:Class that can serve as type for physical substances and an argument restriction for the hasLocation relation. This is a primitive mechanism to accommodate OWL limitations on relation arguments. MoleculeType is a metatype which is a specialization of the Protege owl:Class that can serve as type for classes of individual physical molecules and an argument restriction for the isaMoleculeOfSubstance relation. This is a primitive mechanism to accommodate OWL limitations on relation arguments. EmittableObjectType is a metatype which is a specialization of the Protege owl:Class that can serve as type for EmittableObjects and for wavelike Events, in an argument restriction for the canEmit relation. This is a primitive mechanism to accommodate OWL limitations. Surface texture of physical objects. WireType is a metatype which is a specialization of the Protege owl:Class that can serve as type for different kinds of wire and an argument restriction for the relation s on chemical elments. This is a primitive mechanism to accommodate OWL limitations on relation arguments. A specialization of #$BiologicalTaxon. Each instance of #$BiologicalOrder is an immediate subdivision of some instance of #$BiologicalClass or #$BiologicalSubclass (qq.v.). Instances of #$BiologicalOrder include #$CarnivoreOrder, #$Monotreme, and #$Primate. bd58e329-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 Each instance of FingerType is a subtype of 'Finger', indicating the specific type of Finger (e.g. 'LeftThumb'). CollectiveNounCategory is a metatype which is a specialization of the Protege owl:Class that can serve as type for classes that are labeled as collective nouns in Engolish, such as 'lumber'. The scale of ranks employed by the United States Navy. This is a collection of attributes that are used with the predicate #$rank-Military. 30f91a14-74b0-11d6-8000-00a0c99cc5ae The scale of ranks employed by the United States Air Force. This is a collection of attributes that are used with the predicate #$rank-Military. b77c6604-74b0-11d6-8000-00a0c99cc5ae The scale of ranks employed by the United States Army. This is a collection of attributes that are used with the predicate #$rank-Military. a0906ed6-74b0-11d6-8000-00a0c99cc5ae The scale of ranks employed by the United States Marine Corps. This is a collection of attributes that are used with the predicate #$rank-Military. ccf8b4ba-74b0-11d6-8000-00a0c99cc5ae a metatype that can be used as an argument restriction for relations that take a subtype of Illness as one of their arguments. a metatype that can be used as an argument restriction for relations that take a subtype of Infection as one of their arguments. A Device or Process in its Role as an Invention. To refer to a device or process as an invention, one can add the type 'InventionType' to the type (OWL class) and then refer to that type. See 'ThomasAlvaEdison' for an examnple of usage. This is approximately sense 2 of 'invention' in WordNet, however, as a metatype it has no direct connection to any other type 2. (6) invention, innovation - (a creation (a new device or process) resulting from study and experimentation) invention invention2n BiologicalOrgan is a metaclass used as the Type restriction on certain relations that pertain to named parts of organisms at particular stages of their life cycle. It is not necessarily an animal body part type - it may be part of a plant. a metatype that can be used as an argument restriction for relations that take a type of Location (spatial location) as one of their arguments.. a metatype that can be used as an argument restriction for relations that take a type of TimeInterval (temporal location) as one of their arguments.. a metatype that can be used as an argument restriction for relations that take an instance of Feature as one of their arguments.. A collection of specializations of #$AnimalBodyRegion. Each instance of #$AnimalBodyPartType is a collection of body parts, where the parts in question are differentiated from other body parts according to structure or function. Instances of #$AnimalBodyPartType include #$SpinalColumn, #$Eyelash, #$NervousSystem, #$Urethra, #$Wing-AnimalBodyPart, and #$HeelOfPalm. bd58e7da-9c29-11b19dad-c379636f7270 'ProductType' is a metatype that can be used as an argument restriction for relations that take an instance of Product (i.e. something for sale) as one of their arguments.. GroupType is a metatype which is a specialization of the Protege owl:Class that can serve as type for physical objects and an argument restriction for various relations on types of Groups (not just People, but any type of Group). This is a primitive mechanism to accommodate OWL limitations on relation arguments. SubstanceType is a metatype which is a specialization of the Protege owl:Class that can serve as type for physical substances and an argument restriction for the hasComponentSubstance relation. This is a primitive mechanism to accommodate OWL limitations on relation arguments. The restriction on hasGrainDiameter for SubstanceTypes should require subclasses rather than instances of LengthMeasure - instances may have to be created as a workaround. SubstanceType is a metatype which is a specialization of the Protege owl:Class that can serve as type for types of Energy and an argument restriction for the isaSourceOf relation. This is a primitive mechanism to accommodate OWL limitations on relation arguments. FoodType is a metatype which is a specialization of the Protege owl:Class that can serve as type for different kinds of Food (a Substance). This is a primitive mechanism to accommodate OWL limitations on relation arguments. FoodType is a metatype which is a specialization of the Protege owl:Class that can serve as type for different kinds of FoodObject (a PhysicalObject). This is a primitive mechanism to accommodate OWL limitations on relation arguments. a metaclass used as the Type restriction on certain relations that take subclasses of ChemicallyDefinedSubstance as their argument. Cyc: A collection of collections and a specialization of #$TangibleStuffCompositionType. Each instance of #$ChemicalSubstanceType is a specialization of #$PartiallyTangible whose instances are defined _only_ by their chemical composition - not by their physical state or any other property. Instances of #$ChemicalSubstanceType can be of two varieties: (1) Collections whose instances are completely uniform with each other in terms of chemical composition; this includes (a) the chemical elements - such as #$Carbon, #$Oxygen, and #$Hydrogen - which are instances of #$ElementStuffTypeByNumberOfProtons (thus, the latter is a specialization of #$ChemicalSubstanceType), and (b) chemical compounds constituted of more than one substance chemically bonded, e.g., #$Water, #$Caffeine, and #$IronOxide, which are instances of #$ChemicalCompoundTypeByChemicalSpecies (2) Substances which have a general chemical specification, that is, whose instances do not have exactly the same chemical composition but fall within certain specifications, e.g., #$DNAStuff. Note that collections that are _not_ instances of #$ChemicalSubstanceType include collections of substances which have some component which is of overriding significance in some context, so that in everyday language such substances are frequently referred to by the name of their important component (e.g., penicillin applied to a tablet containing penicillin), but which have significant admixtures of other substances. Thus, #$Penicillin is an instance of #$ChemicalSubstanceType, but the collection of tablets containing penicillin and including other ingredients is not. Also, specializations of #$Mixture, such as #$Lemonade, are _not_ instances of #$ChemicalSubstanceType, because mixtures are determined by their physical state rather than solely by their chemical composition. bd58cd95-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 COSMO note: used for both substances and Objects. @ToDo (v0.50) Probably should be distinguished. Cyc: A collection of collections, and a specialization of #$ManufacturedGoodsType. Instances of this collection are types of pharmaceutical products that may be prescribed by a medical professional. Note that this includes drugs -- specializations of #$DrugSubstance -- as well as pharmaceutical devices such as #$TestStrip or #$HearingAid-Prescription. #$PrescriptionDrugType and #$OverTheCounterDrugType are among the specializations of this collection. c0fdf171-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A pointer to the word in the LDOCE (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English) defining vocabulary which the given element represents. Since the LDOCE words can be polysemous, and the nominalized forms of verbs in the COSMO will not be identical to verb meanings, this is not intended as a one-to one mapping, but in many cases the occurrence of a word in a text will be related to the COSMO concept representation by a more or less complex transformation. Longman vocabulary word A pointer to the synset in WordNet 2.1 which the given element represents. The pointer will in fact be to one of the words in the synset, and the sense number of that word in that synset will be found with the 'wnsense' relation. This pointer does not include the offset number. This can be used with a SPARQL query to find all of the ontology elements that correspond to senses for a given word. Wordnet vocabulary word A pointer to the sense number (and POS, if needed) in WordNet 2.1 which the given element represents. This is only needed if there is more than one WordNet sense for the word labeled by the 'wordnet' relation. The sense number should include the word whose sense number is referenced, since more than one Wordnet word may be used to label a particular concept. The usage is exemplified by these relations on 'Ordering': wordnet - order - /wordnet wordnet - command - /wordnet wnsense - order1v /wnsense wnsense - command2v - /wnsense WordNet sense. A pointer to the word in Anna Wierzbicka's 'natural semantic metalanguage' of 60 conceptual primitives that corresponds to the ontology element. NSM word Objects can be Physical or Abstract or Mental only PhysicalObjects have mass, and that is the defining characteristic of a PhysicalObject in COSMO. All Objects have at least one relation other than the type (isa) relation to some other entity that is not an Object. Almost all objects have an Attribute or AttributeValue. But the relation may be some other relation (e.g. to have a location, a composition, or to have proper parts). Thus a point can have Dimensionality (zero-dimensional), and will have a location, though the location may be in a poorly defined abstract space. For example, a character in an alphabet is an abstract object, which has at least one representation as a shaped physical object, and is an element of an Alphabet. This requirement for an Object to have some relation is not presently (v0.48) formalized in COSMO, as it is not needed for performance, only to clarify the meaning for the human users. 'Object' is a very primitive concept that cannot be defined, but can be comprehended only by the way this concept interacts with other concepts, and by its subclasses and instances. This Type is useful as an umbrella Type for various purposes,including relations on Events. NOTE that in COSMO an 'Object' is not necessarily 3D (as in an endurantist perspective) nor 4D (as in a perdurantist perspective. It can be use in syntactic constructions that appear to be 3D (such as when they are explicitly time-indexed), but when an object is also an instance of TimeSlice,it can be used in syntactic constructions that are typical of the 4D perspective, in which the time of a relation is not explicitly indexed. The most general Type for Objects whose subtypes are abstract - intangible - things that do not have mass. Note that AbstractEntity is not a subtype of AbstractObject - the name 'Abstract' is retained for alignment with other ontologies. NOTE in particular that AbstractEntity is not disjoint from MentalObject, which may be created by people in space and time, and hae a location in space and time. The kind of abstract things that do not have a locaiton in space and time are under 'AbstrctObject' in COSMO. COSMO Note: the notion of 'Abstract' has historically been somewhat vague. It is often defined by saying that it represents things 'not located in space or time' - but then subclasses are defined which are clearly mental constructs with a defined creation time (e.g. musical compositions) - which means that they must indeed be located in time and space. In this ontology we distinguish 'Abstract' things from 'MentalObjects' - the latter are things created by IntelligentAgents (people) that have no mass, and therefore would traditionally be categorized as 'Abstract'. 'AbstractObject' here is used mostly to categorize mathematical things such as numbers, which arguably do not depend on intelligent entities for their existence. But 'AbstractEntities" and 'MentalObjects' are not considered disjoint here, so there is room for people to argue whether mathematical concepts are created or merely discovered by mathematicians - we take no position on that issue. hasAttributeType relates an Attribute to the Type of the attribute. Each Attribute is an entity that has an AttributeType and some form of AttributeValue; it can serve as the value of a 'hasAttribute' relation. There are three subtypes of Attribute: QuantitativeAttribute, QualitativeAttribute, and IntensiveAttribute. In COSMO, the representation of 'attributes' (properties in informal terms) includes two or three aspects, depending on whether the Attribute is qualitative or quantitative, respectiely: (1) the AttributeType (Color, Length, Flexibility). The AttributeType specifies the kind of attribute that is being represented. Every instance of Attribute must specify the AttributeType (2) the AttributeValue (Color -Red; Length - 10 feet; Flexibility - high) for quantitative attributes (10 feet, 30 pounds) the AttributeValue is composed of both a number and a UnitOfMeasure. The UnitOfMeasure values include 'Dimensionless', a pure number (e.g. as an attribute of 'Cardinality' for a Group) In the case of quantitative attributes, rather than pointing from an instance of Attribute to a QuantitativeAttributeValue, the relations 'hasUnit' and 'hasQuantifier'can point directly to the UnitOfMeasure and the Quantifier. An instance of QuantitativeAttributeValue can be represented as the UnitOfMeasure and the quantifier, separately, specified by relations 'hasUnit' and 'hasQuantifier'. If the implementation allows use of functions, a QuantitativeAttributeValue can be represented as a function term such as {25.6 feet}. For QualitativeAttributes the AttributeValue may be directly represented. For IntensiveAttributes, the AttributeValue can have interal-type intensity values such as 'Low', 'Medium', 'High'. The type of an Attribute is specified as the value of the 'hasType' relation. A CompositeConcept is a Group that consists of component elements of different basic types, such as a System (which see). The notion of a CompositeConcept provides a way to represent things like situations that have essential elements of different type (such as States and FunctionalProcesses). A specialization of the 'finishes' relation which points from a TemporalThing (TimeInterval or Event) to the TimePoint at which that TemporalThing ended. A specialization of the 'starts' relation which points from a TemporalThing (TimeInterval or Event) to the TimePoint at which that TemporalThing started.. An Entity that has a beginning point in time and an ending point in time. The usage of this term in COSMO differs from the usage in OpenCyc, in that it does **not** include PhysicalObject as a subtype, though the two categories are not disjoint. The purpose of the cyc concept appears to be to permit relating both PhysicalObjects and Events to their time location. In COSMO, that purpose is served by the relation 'hasTemporalLocation' (which see) which has as its domain the union of Events and PhysicalObjects.and 'wasCreatedDuring' and 'wasDestroyedDuring', There is, however, a subtle issue in that the beginning and ending time of a 'TemporalThing' may be the same time, i.e. the instance may be an instantaneous time slice of a time-extended entity. Since in COSMO zero-interval extended entities are indistinguishable from point entities, this means that a '3-D' endurantist object can be an instance of 'TemporalThing' just as a HumanRole, a '4-D' perdurantist object can be an instance of the typically '3-D' Person. In Opencyc a 'TemporalThing' is very generic, it is anything that has a beginning point in time (and presumably an ending point, though it may not be known for existing things). Thus physical objects, which must come into existence at some time (perhaps the beginning of time), as well as events, are 'TemporalThings'. In COSMO, TemporalThing is reserved for TimeIntervals and Events, and PhysicalObjects are not classified as subtypes of TemporalThing. The creation and destruction time of PhysicalObjects will use different relations. OPENCYC 1: MAY 23, 2002 The collection of all things that have temporal extent or location, i.e. things about which one might sensibly ask When? . #$TemporalThing thus contains many kinds of things, including events, physical objects, agreements, and abstract pieces of time. Note that #$TimePoint is a specialization of #$TemporalThing, since time points have temporal location, although they arguably lack temporal extent. Abstract things that are timeless - such as mathematical sets, attributes, and numbers - are of course _not_ instances of #$TemporalThing. NOTE that although every TemporalThing must have a starting and ending TimePont, that notion is not represented as an existential restriction so that it will not be necessary to explicitly represent the starting and ending times of intervals whose starting and ending times can be calculated from the name. This is a pragmatic and implementational, not a theoretical consideration. 'Individual' is a Cyc concept used to distinguish abstract sets and collections (classes) from things that are individuals. Interestingly, groups of things can be individuals - if they are defined as distinct from sets (see 'Group'). This class may be superfluous, but in COSMO is a convenient catch-all for some aggregate Types that would merely serve to clutter the top level and obscure the structure of the ontology if exposed at the top level directly under 'Thing'. Conversely, Some of the subtypes of the Cyc 'individual' have also been subclassed directly to 'owl:Thing' to expose those common concepts at the highest level, to make the structure of the ontology easier to see. NOTE that some of the concepts mentioned in the Cyc documnentation differ significantly in COSMO from related concepts in Cyc. But the Cyc documentation is given here to describe how the similar Cyc notion of Group is described in that ontology. From OpenCyc: OPENCYC 1: MAY 23, 2002 #$Individual is the collection of all individuals: things that are _not_ sets or collections. Individuals might be concrete or abstract, and include (among other things) physical objects, events, numbers, relations, and groups. An instance of #$Individual might have parts or structure (including discontinuous parts); but _no_ individual has elements or subsets (see #$elementOf and #$subsetOf). Thus, an individual that has parts (e.g. #$physicalParts or #$groupMembers) is _not_ the same thing as either the set or the collection containing those same parts. For example, your car is an individual, but the collection of all the parts of your car is not an individual but an instance of #$Collection. This collection (unlike the car itself) is abstract: it doesn't have a location, mass, or a top speed; but it does have instances, subcollections, and supercollections. In partial contrast, the #$Group (q.v.) of parts of your car (while also not the same thing as the car itself) _is_ an individual that has location and mass. Another example: A given company, the group consisting of all the company's employees, the collection of those employees, and the set of those employees are four distinct things, and only the first two are individuals. COSMO: SituationProcessEventOrState is a broad category that includes Events, FunctionalProcesses, and PersistentStates,all of which are different aspects of the same fundamental conceptual entity, commonly called an 'Event'. Each instance of 'SituationProcessEventOrState' in COSMO is a Group of TimeIndexedAssertion, in aggregate representing the changes (if any) to the properties (attributes and relations) of one or more objects over some interval of time, An InstantaneousState may have only one TimeIndexedAssertion, but Events and FunctionalProcesses will have at least two. Event is a Group of 'TimeIndexedAssertion's containing the component elements: (1) InstantaneousState at the starting time (2) InstantaneousState at the Ending time (3) The FunctionalProcess that describes the intermediate states between the starting and ending times. **Informally**, a state,process, or event is interpreted as the set of *values* of some 'fluents' (attributes or relations that may change over time), but the actual *formal* representation is a Group in which the group elements are the *LinguisticAssertions* specifying the values of the fluents pertaining to some Group of Objects. Each LinguisticAssertion specifies the value at some time point (or time interval). The differences in State, Process,and Event are: State: The Group of Assertions that hold at one time point (InstantaneousState), or persist without change of value over some contiguous interval of time (PersistentState). No value can chage within a State. FunctionalProcess: The full set of LinguisticAssertions specifying the values of fluents at each time point or smaller TimeInterval within a TimeInterval in which the Process is defined. The set of LinguisticAssertions relate times to values,and in that respect is analogous to a mathematical function. In analogy to a mathematical function, one can derive a 'rate' for a Process (in cases where the values are quantified) by taking the ratio of (difference in value) to (difference in time) for any TimeInterval in which a change of value is specified. This rate may change from time to time during a FunctionalProcess. Event: focuses on the values of the fluents at the beginning and ending of some TimeInterval, but also includes the FunctionalProcess that specifies the fluent values at times between the beginning and ending. Since the focus of an Event is on the change from one time point to the next, one cannot specify a 'rate' in the same sense as for a FunctionalProcess, where the rate may change many times during the FunctionalProcess. For an Event, one can derive a single 'rate' value that specifies the overall ratio of change of fluent value to time, between the beginning and ending points, and for an Event, only one such 'rate' can be defined. NOTE: In COSMO a Situation is classified as a CompositeConcept because it is considered as a composite of the InstantaneousStates at the beginning and ending times of the Situation (which can be the same time), plus the FunctionalProcess that describes the states intermediate between the beginning and ending times. Called: Situation-Temporal(Cyc) perdurant(DOLCE) ***** Special COSMO NOTE on BFO 'ProcessualEntity' ***************************** In BFO the Type 'ProcessualEntity' appears to be most closely similar to COSMO 'SituationProcessEventOrState'. However, the division of the BFO Type into 'FiatProcessPart' and 'Process' has no corresponding division in Cyc or SUMO. In COSMO we include a FiatProcessPart for compatibility, but do not use it (no subtypes), and do not use the BFO partition of 'ProcessualEntity'. BFO Definition: An occurrent that exists in time by occurring or happening, has temporal parts and always involves and depends on some SNAP entity. Examples: the life of an organism, the process of meiosis, the course of a disease, the flight of a bird ***** End Special NOTE on BFO 'ProcessualEntity' ***************************** Cyc 'Situation' is indistinguishable from 'Situation-Temporal' except for the possible inclusion in 'Situation' of abstract situations not enclosed in a time interval. The term 'Situation' has been interpreted in COSMO as strictly temporal, and the more abstract things that resenble situations have been aggregated under 'AbstractEvent'. Cyc ('Situtation') A subcollection of both #$IntangibleIndividual and #$TemporalThing. #$Situation subsumes #$Event and #$StaticSituation. Each instance of #$Situation is a state or event consisting of one or more objects having certain properties, or bearing certain relations to each other. OPENCYC 1: (Situation-Temporal) MAY 23, 2002 A subcollection of both #$Situation and #$TemporalThing. #$Situation-Temporal is the collection of all instances of #$Situation that have duration or other temporal properties . Thus, #$Situation-Temporal subsumes #$Event and #$StaticSituation, as well as some other specializations of #$Situation. It does _not_ subsume any specializations of #$Situation that have atemporal instances. DOLCE: Perdurants (AKA occurrences) comprise what are variously called events, processes, phenomena, activities and states. They can have temporal parts or spatial parts. For instance, the first movement of (an execution of) a symphony is a temporal part of the symphony. On the other hand, the play performed by the left side of the orchestra is a spatial part. In both cases, these parts are occurrences themselves. We assume that objects cannot be parts of occurrences, but rather they participate in them. Perdurants extend in time by accumulating different temporal parts, so that, at any time they are present, they are only partially present, in the sense that some of their proper temporal parts (e.g., their previous or future phases) may be not present. E.g., the piece of paper you are reading now is wholly present, while some temporal parts of your reading are not present yet, or any more. Philosophers say that endurants are entities that are in time, while lacking temporal parts (so to speak, all their parts flow with them in time). Perdurants, on the contrary, are entities that happen in time, and can have temporal parts (all their parts are fixed in time). connected_spatiotemporal_region BFO Definition: A space time region that has temporal and spatial dimensions such that all points within the spatiotemporal region are mediately or immediately connected to all other points within the same space time region. Examples: the spatial and temporal location of an individual organism's life, the spatial and temporal location of the development of a fetus. @ToDo: COSMO note: in COSMO, the type TimePoint (instant) is a subtype of TimeInterval, whereas in BFO interval and instant are disjoint. The BFO interval, therefore must be a non-zero length. For simplicity, COSMO does not yet have a non-zero-length instant (no need yet), and when that is added the BFO 'SpatiotemporalInterval' neeeds to be equated with the non-zero-length interval, and the subtype relation of 'SpatiotemporalInstant' and 'SpatiotemporalInterval' must be removed.. BFO Definition: A space time region that has spatial and temporal dimensions and every spatial and temporal point of which is not connected with every other spatial and temporal point of which. Examples: the space and time occupied by the individual games of the World Cup, the space and time occupied by the individual liaisons in a romantic affair. scattered_spatiotemporal_region Definition: A connected space time region at a specific moment. Examples: the space time region occupied by a single instantaneous temporal slice (part) of a process. COSMO note: It is unclear why this is not identical to a region of space at some particular moment. spatiotemporal_instant COSMO note: in COSMO instants are not disjoint from intervals, they are merely the limiting case of intervals of zero lenght. A 'proper interval' is a legitimate concept, but would just be superfluos in COSMO, so this Type will include proper intervals and instants. BFO Definition: A connected space time region that endures for more than a single moment of time. BFO Examples: the space time region occupied by a process or by a fiat processual part spatiotemporal_interval BFO Definition: An occurrent at or in which processual entities can be located. COSMO note: this concept in COSMO is very generic,a nd can be used to specify a spatiotemporal region of any shape. To specify a spatiotemporal region of a more defined shape, use 'TimeAndPlace', for which the spatial shape of the region will depend on the 'location' component of the instance defined. BFO Examples: the spatiotemporal region occupied by a human life, the spatiotemporal region occupied by the development of a cancer tumor, the spatiotemporal context occupied by a process of cellular meiosis spatiotemporal_region A PhysicalObject is an Object that has mass. The mass is relativistic, i..e the Object does not have to have rest mass; so, a photon and other fundamental particles are 'PhysicalObject's, just as are the ordinary objects like rocks, baseballs, and automobiles. In COSMO some quantity of substance (e.g. the water in a glass of water) is also a PhysicalObject (more specifically, an instance of the subtype 'LiquidObject'). Quantities of gas are also PhysicalObjects (more specifically, 'GaseousObject's such as the 'EarthsAtmosphere'). NOTE that a PhysicalSubstance such as Air or Water is not a PhysicalObject, but is the material of which PhysicalObjects consist. See PhysicalSubstance for more detail. Because the determining characteristic of a PhysicalObject is that it has some mass, COSMO has a restriction that all instances of PhysicalObject must specify the mass, using the relation 'hasMassInGrams'. This can be a nuisance when the mass is unknown, and the convention is adopted that a mass of '-1' will be interpreted as an unknown mass. The mass figures can be very approximate - at the OWL phase, the value of the relation 'hasMassInGrams' should be interpreted as only an approximation within an order of magnitude. When more precise mass figures are needed, the relation 'hasMass' can be used (with an instance of MassMeasure as the value), and this relation allows specifying a variance for the mass value. NOTE on '3D' vs '4D' objects: Some ontologists prefer to represent PhysicalObjects as extended in time, thereby forming a '4-dimensional' object ('perdurantism'). Others prefer only 3D objects ('endurantism'), with the time explicitly specified when relations hold on an object. In COSMO this category of 'PhysicalObject' is indeterminate as between a Perdurant and and Endurant - that is, the instances are not necessarily zero-duration time slices, nor are they necessarily time slices of finite duration. An instance of 'PhysicalObject' can be used in relations where the valid time interval for the relation is expllicit, or an instance can also be specified to be an instance of 'TimeSlice', in which case that instance is a 4-dimensional TimeSlice of a PhysicalObject, and any relations defined on that 4D instance hold only during the TimeInterval of the TimeSlice. See 'TimeSlice' for more detail on that type and its use. As a result, Roles such as 'Student', which are TemporalThings with a beginning and end time, can be classified as subtypes of this category. COSMO: A GeopoliticalEntity in COSMO differs from its representation in other ontologies, to stay closer to the linguistic intuitions. Specifically, we say 'government of France', implying that the entity 'France' is not identical to its government. To conform to those intuitions, 'France' and other countries will be GeopoliticalEntities. Therefore a GeopoliticalEntity is something distinct from the organization which forms the government. In COSMO, it is an unusual hybrid, being both a MentalObject and a GenericLocation. Itis neither a PhysicalObject nor an Organization. The Governmen of a GeopoliticalEntity is an Organization. A GeopoliticalEntity in COSMO is a composite Entity which (1) is an agent (2) claims control over some land area of the earth (3) has a government or other ruling organization, which is also an agent (4) is a MentalObject, meaning that it does not have mass and was created by an IntelligentAgent NOTE1: As a GenericLocation, one can say that something isLocatedAt a GeopoliticalEntity even though one means that an object isLocatedAt the region controlled by the GeopoliticalEntity. When an instance of a GeopoliticalEntity is used as an argument that should logically take a region, the implementation should, for consistency, coerce the argument into the corresponding GeopoliticalArea. At present (v0.48) there is no 'disjoint' relation that will cause a logical contradiction, but elaboration of the ontology might cause problems at some point for the use of an Agent as a Location. Alternatives may be worth exploring. NOTE2: if the government performs an action, it is unclear whether it is alway proper to say that a country (or city) performed that action. Therefore the GeopoliticalEntity and its government are treated as distinct agents, though it will probably be true in almost all cases that when one acts, the other can be said to act. NOTE3 that countries have four aspects: (1) the country itself, the GeopoliticalEntity (2) the government of the country (3) the spatial region controlled by the counry (4) the physical objects within the spatial region controlled by the country. (4.1) among the physical objects are those that are part of the land, including the vegetation, and those that are animals or artifactual structures. In normal speech, the distinctions among these are not made because the referents are clear from the context. For this ontology, the distinctions appear necessary. A GeopoliticalEntity usually has an Organization that claims control over the geographical region identified as the area of the GeopoliticalEntity. Usually this will be a government, but occasionally other Organizations such as occupying armies will claim control without claiming to be a formal government. This concept differs from the OpenCyc #$GeopoliticalEntity in that it is strictly an organization, whereas the Cyc concept includes some element of the geographical region itself. The Cyc documentation is reproduced here to clarify the difference: Cyc: A specialization of #$Organization and of #$LegalAgent and of #$GeographicalAgent; instances of this collection control #$GeographicalRegions. Each instance of #$GeopoliticalEntity includes a governing body, but is more than just that governing body. Important subcollections include #$Country, #$IndependentCountry, #$State-Geopolitical, #$City, and #$Province. Instances include #$CityOfTokyoJapan, #$BronxNY-Borough, #$Alaska-State, #$Rwanda, #$Singapore, #$InnerMongolia, #$Somerset-CountyEngland, and #$Taiwan-RepublicOfChina. A central feature of this collection is that geopolitical-entities (indeed, all #$GeographicalAgents) are viewed in two significantly different ways with respect to two different types of geography-related microtheories. In a physical geography microtheory (i.e. #$PhysicalGeographyMt and its submicrotheories), geopolitical-entities are clearly distinguished from the regions they control. (#$TerritoryFn GEO-POL) is used in these contexts to denote the land mass (a #$GeopoliticalRegion) of a given geopolitical-entity GEO-POL. In a dualist geography microtheory (i.e. #$DualistGeopoliticalMt and its submicrotheories), on the other hand, geopolitical-entities are viewed as being _both_ agents _and_ land masses (i.e. #$GeographicalRegions). Thus, there is little need for #$TerritoryFn in the latter sort of context. (Despite their somewhat paradoxical flavor, dualist microtheories arguably allow Cyc to mimic commonsense reasoning about geopolitical entities and regions more closely than do the stricter physicalist microtheories.) There are also some generic geography microtheories (e.g. #$WorldGeographyMt and #$UnitedStatesGeographyMt) which are neutral with respect to the physical and dualist views. Also see the shared-note for this constant. bd58e5da-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A TemporalLocation is a location for something - usually an Event - in the universal time line of our real world, or some alternative reality. It may be a time interval or a point in time. Instances of TemporalLocation may be represented by a DateTimeString , without being reified as an actual instance of this Type. This category includes the conceptual 'Datetime' Entity that is pointed to by the common relations like 'CREATION_DATETIME' that occur in databases. This entity is often represented by a built-in dataype of 'DateTime' or something similar. In COSMO, a DateTime is represented by subtpyes of DateTimeString, an AbstractString. A location in time can serve as a Context, which is anything that can affect the truth of a statement. In the real world, virtually every statement about real-world objects is true only in some particular time interval. RELATIVITY: Time is assumed in COSMO to be measured by some clock, which by default is the NIST atomic clock set, but can be specified as some other clock. Thus a time slice of a spatiotemporal region will be unambiguous, and observers moving relative to that clock, or relative to each other, need to adjust their interpretation according to the equations of relativity. In COSMO there is a superfluous subtype link of this entity to the most general 'Thing' so that 'time' will be exposed to viewers of this ontology at the highest level in Protege, for perspicuity. ******** NOTE on BFO 'TemporalRegion' *********************** The BFO 'TemporalRegion' appears to be the closest BFO Type to the COSMO 'TemporalLocation'. BFO Definition ('TemporalRegion'): An occurrent that is part of time. BFO: Examples ('TemporalRegion'): the time it takes to run a marathon, the duration of a surgical procedure, the moment of death COOSMO note: this is not a *quantity* of time, as the BFO example might suggest, but a *location* in time. 'ten minutes' is not an instance of 'TemporalLocation'. ******** NOTE on BFO 'TemporalRegion' *********************** TimeInterval is not a quantity of time (what is measured by a stopwatch), but a it is a specific region of the time line, what is measured by a calendar (in our real world or in some hypothetical world). Called: TimeInterval(Cyc); TimeInterval(SUMO - but SUMO requires contiguous intervals); time-interval(DOLCE) or period_in_time(ISO15926); the BFO equivalents of TimeInterval ('TemporalInterval') and TimePoint ('TemporalInstant') are disjoint in BFO, but a TimePoint is a subtype of TimeInterval in COSMO. For a quantity of time, use 'TimeDuration'. COSMO NOTE: as a convenience, a calendar time interval can be given a name that conforms to the conventions of one of the DateTime strings defined in COSMO, such as a 'DateTimeExtendedGroup', providing an opportunity for an interpreter to recognize the referenced time interval solely from the name of the instance. See the example used in defining the TimeAndPlace 'WorldTradeCenter20010911'. In Cyc, TimeInterval is not a measure. SUMO: An interval of time. Note that a TimeInterval has both an extent and a location on the universal timeline. Note too that a TimeInterval has no gaps, i.e. this class contains only convex time intervals. OPENCYC 1: MAY 23, 2002 A specialization of #$TemporalThing. Each instance of #$TimeInterval is a temporal thing characterized fully by its temporal attributes. For example, the year A.D. 1967 is an instance of #$TimeInterval; although many interesting things happened during that year, the year itself is completely defined by its temporal extent. On the other hand, the event of Neil Armstrong's walking on the Moon is an #$Event and not a #$TimeInterval, since it is not fully characterized by its temporal extent or other temporal attributes. Specializations of #$TimeInterval include #$CalendarYear, #$CalendarMonth, and #$FiscalQuarter. DOLCE: a region - (Space and Time are special kinds of regions, i.e. AttributeValues or measures) A temporal region, measured according to a calendar. NOTE that a redundant subtype link to 'SituationProcessEventOrState' is included just to make it easier to find TimeInterval in a drill-down search. GenericSubstance[COSMO-added:_not_an_object,_includes_chemicals] List name: GenericSubstance_COSMO-added__not_an_object__includes_chemicals_ COSMO: GenericSubstance is an abstract notion of Substance as the stuff of which objects are composed. It is not an object, even though 'Substance' in OpenCyc and SUMO are actually objects of some particular (homogeneous) composition. In COSMO, we make this provision, among other reasons, to allow abstract 'substances' to compose abstract objects. In COSMO 'Subtance' is a concept that is analogous to the derivative of an object with respect to volume, i.e. it acts like an abstract density (of some substance type). For COSMO version 0.01 (COSMOtopOWL03: 2006-01-01) the required axioms for a proper definition have not been added. For more discussion see: http://colab.cim3.net/file/work/SICoP/ontac/reference/DimensionsOfProcessAndEvent.doc Each SituationalContextComponent is one of the components of the situation in which an IntelligentEntity finds itself, of which it must be aware in order to act or respond appropriately so as to fulfill its goals. Each SituationalContextComponent is defined relative to a particular CognitiveAgent whose actions are being represented in the ontology. GenericLocation is the Type representing the most general notion of location, which can be abstract or concrete, a region of space (including an abstract space, such as the Internet considered as a set of nodes and links, where the nodes can represent computers whose physical location may vary), a point in space, or a physical object (e.g. building, ship, room). NOTE that an Address is not a location, but a label for a location. See 'Address'. NOTE: although *almost* all GenericLocations are exclusively spatial in some way, there is one 'TimeAndPlace' that is spatiotemporal, being a region of space-time that specifies some region of space over some interval of time. Use of an instance of 'TimeAndPlace' as an argument of a location relation allows one to include the important time interval qualifier in location relations, even though one is using only binary relations. this would not be necessary in a representation with higher-arity relations. This is somewhat similar to the Cyc 'Location-Underspecified' Cyc comment: The collection of locations, tangible or otherwise, which are typically conceptualized by human beings for purposes of common-sense reasoning as 'locations'. This collection thus includes tangible Places such as #$Ireland-TheIsland, as well as metaphoric locations. For instance, many states-of-being are conceptualized as abstract locations, such as Trouble ('he saw trouble ahead'), Depression ('she fell into a ...'), #$Happiness ('they found bliss together'). be14f511-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A GenericAgent is an aggregate concept representing things that can be linguistically categorized as agents, that is they are the causative subject of an action. One difficulty comes when including Organizations as Agents; Organizations are not actual physical Objects, therefore cannot literally do things to change the physical world. Rather, people who belong to Organizations, or their 'agents' do the actual moving and lifting that are the causes of actions in the real world. Nevertheless we talk of organizations as though they were somehow objects that did the actions themselves. A second problem arises when inanimate objects take the linguistic form of agents: 'The rock broke the window' or 'The knife cut a deep gash in his arm'. By themseles, those sentences would have the rock or the knife as agents, and the window or arm as patients. If more detail were given: "Tom broke the window with a rock'; 'Tom cut a deep gash in Mike's arm with a knife', the agent now shows up as Tom, and the rock and knife are instruments. For that reason, an instrument (a Role) is categorized in COSMO as a subtype of GenericAgent, to accommodate the linguistic structures where instruments take on the synactic/semantic role of an agent. This category is here to provide a place for the linguistic notion of 'Agent' that can include 'social agents' such as organizations. In this classification we adopt a broad view of agents, allowing inanimate things like hurricanes and tornadoes to be classified as AgentiveObjects. Role is a high-level concept that aggregates several primitive notions, and is difficult to describe analytically, but has a necessary property that, as a subtype of TemporalThing, every instance has a beginning time and an ending time. For Roles that are created by an Event and last forever, (The Father of PrinceWilliam), the ending time can be TheEndOfTime. @ToDo: Certain type of Roles (such as Part) may relate abstract entities that are not located in time, and should not be subtypes of TemporalThing. A differentiation of time-dependent and time-independent Roles should be added. The notion of Role is related to the more general notion of a semantic relation, and in some knowledge representations the relations are called 'roles'. In COSMO there is s difference, as a Role is a type, though every Role may in fact imply the existence of some semantic relation that relates the role to another entity with respect to which it plays a role. The details of how to relate these notions is left to a later stage of development of the ontology. For case roles in a specific Event, the Role lasts no longer than the duration of the Event (but may last for less than that time, for participants who participate only for part of an Event). The most common use of 'Role' is for concepts that exist in dependence on other concepts, such as 'Mother', which implies a child, or 'President' which implies some organization. But grammatical roles such as the cases of verb case frames will also fit under this broad category. When a phrase such as 'The ?X of ?Y' is encountered, almost invariably the ?X is a Role of some kind, which also includes parts. In COSMO 'Role' is broad enough to include Events; for example, 'Choice' is a Role, and some Events may fill the Role of 'Choice' - those thing a Person chooses to do. NOTE importantly: that HumanRole is a subtype of this category, and also a subtype of Person, so Person and Role are not disjoint. This allows HumanRoles (janitor, President) to serve in the same relations that people themselves would serve, but they are also recognizable as Roles because they will be subtypes of the Role category. The mathematical and logical 'equals' can be used to equate a unique Role with its filler, but only if the time interval during which that relation hodls is specified. In that case, the Role and its filler can be used interchangeably, but only in the base 'all-knowing' context NOTE that Roles may not be 'transparent' in referential contexts asserting beliefs or possible worlds. A person who does not know the filler of a Role may express opinions about the Role, which are inconsistent with their opinions about the filler of the Role. For example, a man who loves his wife may assert that he hates the murderer of a friend, not knowing that his wife is the murderer of his friend. If the Role and role filler were asserted to be mathematically identical in all contexts, this would entail a contradiction, assuming that love and hate are disjoint for this example. An individual assertion by a Person needs to be treated as a part of a belief system. NOTE also that when used as a pure OWL ontology, it will be necessary for every subclass of Role should to be an instance of RoleType, so that it can be used as an argument for the relation 'isServingInTheRoleOf'. If, in other formats, this condition is not explicit, the translation should add the Type when converting into OWL format. For Roles that are merged with other Types, such as HumanRoles, each should have its own explicit relation indicating when the role-filler started in that role and when (it/he/she) ended. If it is possible to fill a Role for multiple non-continguous periods of time, then the begin and end time of each continuous segment of 'Role' will define individual instances of that Role; as a reault, the relation 'isServingInTheRoleOf' cannot be functional. NOTE also that the use of 'Role" in the COSMO is still being developed, and is likely to be seen to be inconsistent in application (though not logically inconsistent) as of v 0.49. The issue not yet resolved is whether the subtypes of 'Role' as here used would be better categorized as 'playing a role' rather than 'being a role'. Although this quasi-philosophical issue is not yet clear, this vagueness does not appear to cause any logical inconsistencies in usage. An AttributeValue is the actual value of some AttributeType possessed by some object, such as six feet for a length, or red for a color. Individual AttributeValues are represented as Types (classes) in COSMO, not as instances. IMPORTANT NOTE: the values represented by each of these AttributeValue Types are here viewed as a region ('Quality Space') in which the actual particular value (see Type 'Quality') is located. Thus one may say an object has a 'Red' color, but later refine the description to say it has a 'Fire Red' color. The 'Fire Red' is also a color region, contained within the 'Red' color region. For quantitative measures, representing attributes as classes allows approximate measures to be built in to the ontology itself. One may specify a range for a measure, and any other measure within or overlapping that range can be considered as 'indistinguishable from' (not 'equal to') the other measure. NOTE: under consideration - the possibility of expressing the possession of an attribute for some interval of time by creating instances of AttributeValue or of Attribute that are also TimeSlices, with the time interval of the TimeSlice representing the time interval during which the Attribute was had. This has an advantage over using TimeSlice to create 4D TimeSlices of an object, and then attributing an Attribute to it - in that one need not create new instances of an Object, which may not be easily associated with the 3D object. COSMO: a three-dimensional region of some space (not necessarily our real world space). This is the space itself, and does not include or immply that ther are any objects in it. However, each instance of this kind fo space will usually be interpreted relative to some defined cooridinate system, which, in the ral world, usually means that it is relative to some physical object (which could be the collecion of all object in the universe as a whole, to provide a universal frame of revernce). In Cyc called 'ChunkOfSpace'. Cyc: A specialization of both #$ExtendedSpaceRegion and #$TwoOrHigherDimensionalThing (qq.v.). Instances of #$ChunkOfSpace are three-dimensional portions of a three-dimensional space. This is the kind of place that solid (i.e. three-dimensional) objects occupy. It makes sense to speak of, or compute, the volume of such objects. An important specialization of this collection is #$ChunkOfSpace-Empirical, whose instances are pieces of space in the empirical universe - the kind of space that physical objects occupy. be669a01-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A connected part of any space, physical or abstract. A Region does not have to be empty, but can be occupied by solid objects. For an empty region of space see 'FreeSpaceRegion'. NOTE that Region is disjoint with PhysicalObject, but not disjoint with Object (which can be abstract). A Feature is classified as an Object though it may also be a Region. BFO (SpatialRegion): Definition: A continuant at or in which other continuants can be located. COSMO note: in BFO, a SpatialRegion is the union of: Line, Point, Surface, and Volume. This is close to the present concept of 'Region', but those terms in COSMO are more abstract. OPENCYC 1: MAY 23, 2002 The collection of all spatial things, tangible or intangible, that can be meaningfully said to have location or position in the empirically observable universe of the context in question. This includes all #$PartiallyTangible things, such as pyramids and ships, as well as certain #$Intangible spatial things, like the #$Equator. Also included are all #$Events that can be pinned down to specific places (see #$Event-Localized), and thus all #$PhysicalEvents. But note that many events are non-examples, such as the event of a certain law coming into effect and (presumably) purely mental events as well, at least in most contexts. Also excluded are #$SpatialThings that are _not_ localized, such as purely abstract geometrical figures (e.g. a Platonic sphere). All instances of #$SpatialThing-Localized are temporal things, and thus have finite lifespans (the upper bound of which is the lifespan of the universe itself). Finally, note that imaginary entities like Frodo, Captain Queeg, and #$HAL9000-TheComputer may be localized within the (imaginary) universes attaching to the fictitious contexts in which they are defined, and so would be instances of #$SpatialThing-Localized within those microtheoretic contexts. NOTE: because Cyc 'SpatialThing-Localized' includes intangible spatial things, this is not identical to the purely physical objects such as 'Oject' in SUMO. In COSMO,purely physical objects are categorized in the Type 'PhysicalObject', which is a subtype of this 'SpatialThing-Localized' category. A SpatialRegion can be of any dimension, though the ones of most interest are three-dimensional in our real world. All Regions must have their location referenced to some definable object, whether abstract or physical. In theory, it may be possible to consider the whole universe as an Object and define 'absolute' regions based on locations in the whole universe, but that may not be useful for any practical purpose. The regions of greatest interest to people are regions defined relative to the Earth's surface, which forms a moving rotating frame of reference, which we treat as stationary for most purposes. NOTE: The BFO 'SpatialRegion' is closest to the COSMO 'PhysicalSpaceRegion' which is a subtype of this Type. PhysicalSPaceRegion is a portion of the there-dimensional space of our real world space-time universe. This is considered equialent to\the BFO 'Volume' COSMO Note: SpaceRegion in OpenCyc is not an Object, but pure space. Objects may be located in space. This region is part our our Space-Time This concepts is roughly equivalent to the OpenCyc 'ChunkOfSpace-Empirical', but we allow space regions to be defined by their relation to physical objects - therefore they may not be 'immobile' as the Cyc documentation suggests for 'ChunkOfSpace-Empirical'. For simplicity, the Cyc concept 'SpaceRegion-Empirical' has been merged with this concept, as the distinctions did not seem to have sufficient importance to justify the complexity. BFO: the BFO Type 'SpatialRegion' appears to have the same intent as this Type. The BFo subtypes of Line and Surface appear to be isentical to the subtypes of this Type: SpaceLine-Empirical, SpaceSurface-Empirical, BFO Definition ('SpatialRegion'): A continuant at or in which other continuants can be located. BFO Examples ('SpatialRegion'): the space occupied by an appendix, the space that was occupied by an appendix prior to its removal Cyc comment for 'ChunkOfSpace-Empirical': A specialization of #$SpaceRegion-Empirical, #$ChunkOfSpace, and #$SpatialThing-Localized (qq.v.). Instances of #$ChunkOfSpace-Empirical are three-dimensional portions of the intangible space of the empirically-observable universe. This is the kind of space that physical objects occupy. Cyc comment for 'SpaceRegion-Empirical': A specialization of #$SpaceRegion, #$SpatialThing-Localized, and #$IntangibleExistingThing (qq.v.). Instances of #$SpaceRegion-Empirical are intangible regions of space located in the empirically observable universe. A space region might or might not be connected (see #$SpatiallyContinuousThing). It might be partially or completely filled with (occupied by) #$PartiallyTangibles, or it might be completely empty (but cf. #$EmptySpaceRegion). In any case, the space region itself is not to be confused with a physical object or other spatially localized (non-space-region) thing that might happen to be #$cospatial with it. A given space region can be characterized fully merely by specifying its location and dimensions. Thus (although this is not the case with spatial things in general), space regions are identical (#$equals) if and only if they are #$cospatial. #$SpaceRegion-Empirical is in a way the spatial analogue of #$TimeInterval, whose own instances can be fully characterized by specifying their temporal properties; these two collections can be used, respectively, to talk about space and time as dimensions . Specializations of #$SpaceRegion-Empirical include #$SpacePoint-Empirical, #$SpaceLine-Empirical, #$SpaceSurface-Empirical, and #$ChunkOfSpace-Empirical. OPENCYC 1: MAY 23, 2002 A specialization of #$SpatialThing whose instances are regions of space that exclusively act as locations for other spatial objects, and thus are immobile. Instances of #$SpatialThing are said to occupy some region of space. Three dimensional regions of space [#$ChunkOfSpace] can be occupied by solid objects, see the specialization #$ChunkOfSpace-Empirical for the regions of space occupied by physical objects. Purely two-dimensional objects occupy a #$SpaceSurface, see also #$SpaceLine and #$SpacePoint-Empirical for objects of lower dimension. Note that an object of a given dimension cannot truly be located [#$exactlyLocatedAt-Spatial] at a region of space of lower dimension, but only partially or incidentally. For more information on location and occupancy, see #$AbsoluteLocationalPredicate and its instances that relate objects in space and their regions. An important specialization of #$SpaceRegion is #$SpaceRegion-Empirical, whose instances are pieces of the embedding space where spatio-temporal objects are empirically localizable [#$SpatialThing-Localized]. Note that SpaceRegion in SUMO is an object viewed as a location. takesValue relates an AttributeType to the AttributeValues that instantiate the AttributeType. For example, the AttribugeType Length will be instantiated by an the type 'LengthMeasure'. This relation is similar to the 'instance' relation, but is specific to the relationship between AttributeTypes and AttributeValues, used to implement the specfici method of representing attributes that is adopted for COSMO.. The inverse of 'takesValue'. An AttributeType is a general category of attribute, i.e. some property that adheres in an object, such as length or mass or color or shape for physical objects. More abstract objects such as sets or groups may have more abstract attributes such as cardinality. The distinction between attributes and relations between entities is not absolute. COSMO note: The use of two distinct trees of attribute-related types (AttributeType and AttributeValue) is intended to enable assertions with a linguistic form such as: {Jack has Height {6 feet}) where the second argument 'Height' specifies the general type of attribute, and the value '{6 feet}' specifies the specific attribute value, where 'feet' is a function returning a distance measure. This generic attribute assertion can then be used with other types of attributes, such as: {Jack has Weight {60 kilograms}) and {Car037 has Color RedColor). A TimePoint is a closed interval of time having zero length. The beginning TimePoint and Ending TimePoint are identical for any given TimePoint. The representation of a TimePoint as a zero-length time interval is only an alternate view of a TimePoint. (=> (isanInstanceOf ?TP TimePoint) (and (hasStartingTimePoint ?TP ?TP) (hasEndingTimePoint ?TP ?TP))) A TimePoint is classified here as a subclass of TimeInterval because we adopt the interpretation that a time interval of zero length duration is indistinguishable from a time point. We know from special relativity that time may proceed at different rates in objects that are moving relative to each other, so all time values must be relative to some clock. In the absence of any explicit clock designation, the NIST atomic clock signals transmitted from Boulder Colorado are considered as the clock of reference. A TimePoint may be represented by a limit expression, e.g. 'before Jan 1 2008', or by a range ('some time point between Jan 1 200 and Jan 1 2008'). This allows incomplete time information to be entered when not known exactly. This may be implemented by a functional expression, but is not yet formalized in COSMO version 0.44. ******* COSMO NOTE on BFO 'TimeInstant' ************ COSMO note: in COSMO, time points are subtypes of TimeInterval, so the 'disjoint' relation in BFO between TimePoint and TimeInterval was removed. BFO: owl:disjointWith rdf:resource='#TemporalInterval' BFO rdfs:subClassOf rdf:resource="#ConnectedTemporalRegion" BFO Definition: A connected temporal region comprising a single moment of time. BFO Examples: right now, the moment at which a finger is detached in an industrial accident, the moment at which a child is born, the moment of death ******* COSMO NOTE on BFO 'TimeInstant' ************ COSMO note: Place can be a PhysicalObject or a Region. This category is very generic. Cyc: A specialization of #$EnduringThing-Localized. Each instance of #$Place is a spatial thing which has a relatively permanent location. Thus, in a given microtheory, each #$Place is stationary with respect to the frame of reference of that microtheory. bd58d3b4-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 COSMO: Context is a very general class of entities that can affect the truth of a logical sentence; within any given Context, the factual assertions should all be logically consistent. A Context may be relevant to the internal states and processes of a computational system, or may more generally describe the broad situation in which an Agent finds itself when processing information for the purpose of making a decision. For the latter agent context, the subtype 'SituationalContextComponent' is relevant. A Context can be a time interval, location, belief system, fictional world, theory, hypothetical world, counterfactual situation, segment of text, DatabaseGroup, or the state of our own real world, among other things. Contexts can be nested, combined, or intersected. For example, a Context consisting of a TimeInterval can be intersected with a Context consisting of a GeographicalArea to make a Context within with assertions are explicitly true only in that time and place. That does not mean, of course that the assertion cannot be true elsewhere; it just doesn't guranteee truth elsewhere. Every assertion in the COSMO ontology is implicitly true only in the context of the COSMO ontology, which is itself a theory. But that implicit qualification does not appear directly in any asertion - it can be explicitly mentioned if and when COSMO assertions are referenced in other ontologies. The nesting of Contexts provides a mechanism to create a 'lattice' of theories. In a subcontext for any given Context, all the assertions of the parent Context will be true in the subcontext, and additional assertions may also be true. In this respect, a Context is similar to the 'Microtheories' of the Cyc ontology system; it also has some resemblance to the 'Environments' discussed by Ballim and Wilks ('Artifical Believers', Lawrence Erlbaum, 1991). One specialized example of Context is a 'DatabaseGroup'. In a particular Organization, its set of Databases, if intended to represent some consistent group of facts, can be viewed and represented as a Context within which reasoning may be performed. A #$SpatialThingTypeByDimensionality and a specialization of #$SpatialThing, each instance of which is either a one- or two- or three- (or higher-) dimensional spatial object. Examples include tangible or intangible spatially-localized dimensional objects, such as the edge of a tabletop, the surface of the tabletop, and the table itself, as well as abstract geometrical objects that are at least one-dimensional, such as a Platonic circle or cube. Specializations of this collection include #$ExtendedSpaceRegion, #$ShapedThing, and #$TwoOrHigherDimensionalThing. A #$SpatialThingTypeByDimensionality and a specialization of #$SpatialThing, each instance of which is either a two- or three- (or higher-) dimensional spatial object. Examples include tangible or intangible spatially-localized polydimensional objects, such as the flat surface of a tabletop and the table itself, as well as abstract geometrical objects that are at least two-dimensional, such as a Platonic cube. Specializations of this collection include #$PartiallyTangible, #$BilateralObject, and #$TwoDimensionalGeometricThing. A MentalObject is an Object that does not have mass and was created by an IntelligentAgent (usually a Person.or Organization). This is a very broad and primitive category comprehensible mostly by inspection of a list of subtypes. Since this is not physical, instances of this Type are not observable, but physical representations of instances of this Type (such as a specific copy of 'Gone With the Wind') can be weighed and felt. Abstract texts, musical compositions, propositions, theories, plays, poems, speeches, rights - all are MentalObjects. They will invariably have a physical representation in some PhysicalObject (including brains, light waves and sound waves). But the MentalObject itself has no physical (material) component. This corresponds closely to what in some systems (e.g. the Ontology Works top ontology) is called an 'AbstractArtifact' - something created by a Person that is not a PhysicalObject. We adopt the convention that an individual MentalObject exists only so long as there is some PhysicalObject that represents it. That PhysicalObject could be the brain of a Person, some sound or electromagnetic waves encoding that MentalObject, or some piece of paper with markings on it. When the last physical object representing that MentalObject ceases to exist, that MentalObject also ceases to exist. A new MentalObject indistinguishable from a previously existing one can always be created (even by the original creator), but it would be a different individual with a different identity. NOTE that a MentalObject is a subtype of 'AbstractEntity', but we adopt the convention that it can hava a location in space-time, being the collection of locations where its physical representations are located. Thus a Belief or a Proposition may be located in the brain of one or more IntelligentAgents, or in physical documents describing the belief symbolically. This 'location' differs from the location of any individual physical object, because the location is the collection of all physical objects containing representations of the Mental Object. This notion of 'abstract' is not the same as the traditional 'abstract' which cannot be located in space-time. Other subtypes of 'AbstractEntity' such as MathematicalObjects will be more traditionally abstract in that way. An idiosyncratic 'location' for a MentalObject is the location of a GeopoliticalEntity, which is located in the region controlled by the GeopoliticalEntity. Equivalent to the Cyc #$Artifact-Intangible OPENCYC 1: MAY 23, 2002: A specialization of both #$IntangibleIndividual and #$Artifact-Generic. Each instance of #$Artifact-Intangible is an intangible thing intentionally created by an agent or agents. Important specializations of #$Artifact-Intangible include #$ComputerLanguage, #$ConceptualWork, and #$Agreement. An AbstractObject is an entity which does not exist in space or time. This is more stringnent than merely not having mass, the criterion for belinging to 'AbstractEntity. This category is mostly for mathematical concepts. Under 'AbstractEntity' we also have 'MentalObjects', which do exist in space and time. COSMO Note: the notion of 'Abstract' has historically been somewhat vague. It is often defined by saying that it represents things 'not located in space or time' - but then subclasses are defined which are clearly mental constructs with a defined creation time (e.g. musical compositions) - which means that they must indeed be located in time and space. In this ontology we distinguish generically 'Abstract' things from 'MentalObjects' - the latter are things created by IntelligentAgents (people) that have no mass, and therefore would traditionally be categorized as 'Abstract'. 'AbstractObject' here is used mostly to categorize mathematical things such as numbers, which arguably do not depend on intelligent entities for their existence. But 'AbstractEntities" and 'MentalObjects' are not considered disjoint here, so there is room for people to argue whether mathematical concepts are created or merely discovered by mathematicians - we take no position on that issue. See the note under 'AbstractEntity' to see how 'Abstract' is used in this ontology. The current (20061027) arrangement here is provisional, keeping some of the terminology from Cyc and SUMO for alignment - but it may be changed slightly in the future in a way that will not affect inferencing. Intangible_Cyc__Abstract_SUMO__abstract_object_ISO15926 ISO15926 An Abstract-object is a thing that does not exist in space-time. (COSMO note - this is not the interpretation in COSMO - MentalObjects are abstract, but they do 'exist' in our ordinary space and time.) SUMO: Abstract : Properties or qualities as distinguished from any particular embodiment of the properties/qualities in a physical medium. Instances of Abstract can be said to exist in the same sense as mathematical objects such as sets and relations, but they cannot exist at a particular place and time without some physical encoding or embodiment. #$Intangible: OPENCYC 1: MAY 23, 2002 The collection of things that are not physical - are not made of, or encoded in, matter. Every #$Collection is an #$Intangible (even if its instances are tangible), and so are some #$Individuals. Caution: do not confuse 'tangibility' with 'perceivability' - humans can perceive light even though it's intangible--at least in a sense. For more on this issue, see the relevant #$cyclistNotes. Intangible[Cyc]%Abstract[SUMO]%abstract_object[ISO15926] COSMO Note: note that Cyc SpatialThing does not have to be in our space-time, whereas DOLCE spatio-temporal-particular is. So the DOLCE class is a subclass of the Cyc class. OPENCYC 1: MAY 23, 2002 The collection of all things that have a spatial extent or location relative to some other #$SpatialThing or in some embedding space. Note that to say that an entity is a member of this collection is to remain agnostic about two issues. First, a #$SpatialThing may be #$PartiallyTangible (e.g. #$Texas-State) or wholly #$Intangible (e.g. #$ArcticCircle or a line mentioned in a geometric theorem). Second, although we do insist on location relative to another spatial thing or in some embedding space, a #$SpatialThing might or might not be located in the actual physical universe. It is far from clear that all #$SpatialThings are so located: an ideal platonic circle or a trajectory through the phase space of some physical system (e.g.) might not be. If the intent is to imply location in the empirically observable cosmos, the user should employ this collection's specialization, #$SpatialThing-Localized. Note that most of the Cyc 'SpatialThings' are in our universe (though not necessarily), so most are also under DOLCE 'spatio-temporal-particular'. DOLCE: Dummy class for optimizing some property universes. It includes all entities that are not reifications of universals ('abstracts'), i.e. those entities that are in space-time. spatio-temporal-particular[DOLCE]%SpatialThing hasMassInGrams relates an Object to its mass measured in grams. This is a shortcut to using more general functional mass measures, and is used here only for illustration, to permit some specifics in instances. The values given should be taken as crude estimates (order of magnitude estimates, possible error over 100%), particularly since no time interval is given by this relation. Relations expressing more exact values of mass have not yet (v0.45) been written in COSMO. This is mostly a placeholder for more meaningful relations. NOTE: for objects whose mass is unknown, a value of '-1' will serve as the code for 'unknown mass'. Since, as of v0.49, a mass value is required in COSMO for PhysicalObjects (mass is the characteristic property of PhysicalObjects), an explicit value must be provided even if it is unknown. If an approximate value can be guessed within +- 100% (as with human weights),a value should be entered so that the reasoner will have some information with which to make inferences. For example, a car mass of 1,000,000 grams (one ton) will allow the reasoner to infer 'too heavy for a person to lift'. 'hasNumericalValue' relates instances of Number or NumericalFunction to the datatype number value. The value, in the case of some fractions (e.g.1/3), may be an approximation to the accurate value.. . OPENCYC 1: MAY 23, 2002 This collection may be thought of as consisting of all the entities which are localizable within the context of a geography, in the sense that they might plausibly be represented on a map. This includes both #$PartiallyTangible entities like #$GeographicalRegions, and also entities that may be wholly #$Intangible, like territorial borders and boundaries, #$LatitudeLines and #$LongitudeLines, trajectories of missiles and courses of ships, and the #$Equator. A specialization of both #$MultiIndividualAgent and #$GeographicalThing. Each instance of #$GeographicalAgent is a group of people and/or organizations cohesive enough to be treated as an agent (see the collection #$Agent, of which #$GeographicalAgent is a specialization), and which occupies a particular instance of #$GeographicalRegion. Important specializations of #$GeographicalAgent include #$GeopoliticalEntity, #$University, and #$Neighborhood. Note that instances of #$GeographicalAgent are viewed in two significantly different ways with respect to two different types of geography-related microtheories. In a 'physical' geography microtheory (i.e. #$PhysicalGeographyMt and its submicrotheories), geographical agents are clearly distinguished from the regions they occupy. (#$TerritoryFn GEO-AGENT) is used in these contexts to denote the land mass (an instance of #$GeographicalRegion) occupied by a given geographical agent GEO-AGENT. In a 'dualist' geography microtheory (i.e. #$DualistGeopoliticalMt and its submicrotheories), on the other hand, geographical agents are viewed as being _both_ agents _and_ land masses (instances of #$GeographicalRegion). Thus, there is little need for #$TerritoryFn in the latter sort of context. (Despite their somewhat paradoxical flavor, dualist microtheories arguably allow Cyc to mimic commonsense reasoning about geographical agents and regions more closely than do the stricter physical microtheories.) There are also some 'generic' geography microtheories (e.g. #$WorldGeographyMt and #$UnitedStatesGeographyMt) which are neutral with respect to the physical and dualist views. Also see the shared-note for this constant. c1371c02-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A specialization of #$IntelligentAgent. Each instance of #$SocialBeing is an intelligent agent whose status as an agent is acknowledged within some social system, and who is capable of playing certain social roles within that system. Note that in many (but not all) cases, a #$SocialBeing will have certain rights and responsibilities associated with his/her/its status within the relevant social system. For agents who are granted rights and responsibilities under some legal system, see the specialization #$LegalAgent. Other notable specializations of #$SocialBeing are #$Person and #$Organization. bd58a49e-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 An Authority is an IntelligentAgent who has created a Rule. Usually, the Rule will be communicated to other Agents to follow (for some purpose), but in a special case an Authority (e.g. an individual person) may create a rule intended only for the Authority itself to follow e.g. a personal code of behavior). The Authority may have authority over a small domain - a parent over his/her children, for example, or the leader of a small group whos emembers consent to follow the rules of the leader. The owner of a property is an Authority for what can be done on that property, and can create a Rule prohibiting actions on that property. 'Authority' is a Role, and an individual Agent does not have to be classified as an Authority, unless the Agent participates in some action or relation that requires an Authority. COSMO note: In COSMO, an Organization differs from its representation in some other ontologies. In COSMO, an Organization is not a group of people, it is a MentalObject, an artifact created by people. the essence of an Organization is that it is organized. It therefore must have an explicit set of organizing principles (a charter or constitution) whether that is written or, as in some small informal organizations, merely retained in the minds of its members. In addition to its charter, an Organization will have one or more lists of associated agents (people or other organizations). There may be more than one list, and the 'members' may not be called members. A complex organization like a corporation may have several lists, e.g. board members, stockholders, corporate officers, employees, even long-term contractors. The relationships of the agents on those lists to the organization and to each other is specified in the charter. Any or all of the lists of associated agents ('members' in simple organizations) may be empty. An Organization can exist without members, and this differs from the specification in SUMO (below). There are some bordeline cases where groups of people have some degree of organizing principle, but no charter (consitution) developed specifically for that group. In those cases, such groups wll be instances of 'GroupOfPeople'. An example is a jury, which is called together by the judicial system, not organized by its members for their own purposes. A pick-up team of basketball or baseball players playing one day and not remaining as a team is also a GroupOfPeople. But stable suborganizations of larger organizations, such as a company or platoon of soldiers, is an Organization and not just a GroupOfPeople. Because an Organization in COSMO is not a physical object, the parts of Cyc or other ontologies that consider Organization as a subtype of group of people (a physical object) will be inconsistent. Some effort will be needed to convert Organizations in other ontologies to its representation in COSMO. When an Organization is said to act as an 'Agent', there necessarily must be some physical agent (person or computer program) that in fact performs the action. Thus the 'agency' of an organization differs from that of physical agents, as it will be indirect. Every Organization is an 'Authority' because it creates rules, at least for its own members with respect to the organization. SUMO: An Organization is a corporate or similar institution. The members of an Organization typically have a common purpose or function. Note that this class also covers divisions, departments, etc. of organizations. For example, both the Shell Corporation and the accounting department at Shell would both be instances of Organization. Note too that the existence of an Organization is dependent on the existence of at least one member (since Organization is a subclass of Collection). Accordingly, in cases of purely legal organizations, a fictitious member should be assumed. OPENCYC 1: MAY 23, 2002 The collection of all organizations. Each instance of #$Organization is a group whose group-members are instances of #$IntelligentAgent. In each instance of #$Organization, certain relationships and obligations exist between the members of the organization, or between the organization and its members. Instances of #$Organization include both informal and legally constituted organizations. Each instance of #$Organization can undertake projects, enter into agreements, own property, and do other tasks characteristic of agents; consequently, #$Organization is a specialization of the collection #$Agent. Notable specializations of #$Organization include #$LegalGovernmentOrganization, #$CommercialOrganization, and #$GeopoliticalEntity. DOLCE: A socially-constructed person with a complex articulation of tasks, roles and figures. COSMO note: the superfluous parent Type 'Thing' was added so as to make this important Type easily visible by drill-down in the hierarchy. The collection of #$Intangible things that are intrinsically mathematical (see #$MathematicalThing) or computational (see #$ComputationalObject). Instances of #$MathematicalOrComputationalThing are abstract in the very strong sense of being nonspatial, atemporal, and massless. Examples include numbers, sets, collections, relations, algorithms, and abstract character strings. bd58e31f-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A specialization of #$MathematicalOrComputationalThing. Each instance of #$MathematicalThing is an atemporal, nonspatial, purely mathematical thing. #$MathematicalThing is partitioned into two main specializations, #$MathematicalObject and #$SetOrCollection (qq.v). bd58e5b6-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A specialization of both #$MathematicalThing and #$IntangibleIndividual. Each instance of #$MathematicalObject is a purely abstract mathematical thing which is also an individual (see #$Individual). Specializations of #$MathematicalObject include #$Quantifier, #$RealNumber, #$Triangle, and #$TruthValue. Note that instances of #$SetOrCollection are not instances of #$MathematicalObject, since they are not instances of #$Individual. bf461f37-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 Each PhysicalSubstance is an abstraction representing the properties of aggregates composed of multiple small objects of a common type; the notion of a PhysicalSubstance includes any of the common 'substances' we encounter every day: water, air, sugar, salt, coffee (ground or as a drink), beer, meat, steel, plastic, etc., as well as less common substanes such as ion plasma and groups of elementary particles. Every PhysicalSubstance has some basic unit which is the smallest object that can be considered as composed of that substance. For chemical elements the basic unit is an atom; for chemical compounds, the molecule; for sand, one grain of sand, etc. For PhysicalSubstances that are composed of mixtures (e.g. concrete), the formal notion of a 'grain' is used, the 'grain' being the size of the smallest object composed of a substance, that can be subdivided so that the pieces are still objects composed of the same substance. The 'grain' will in general be eight times the size of the 'unit' (allowing division in any of three planes) , but for mixtures the 'unit' may be difficult to identify, and the 'grain' will be the only object identifed as characterizing the PhysicalSubstance. For mixtures, the size of the grain will depend on the sizes and proportions of the constituent objects. Thus in concrete, the grain will have to be at least several times as large as the largest pebble of gravel used in the mixture. The commonly understood properties of substances such as water are characteristic only of aggregates of the basic units (atoms, molecules, grains). To approximate the commonly measured properties (boiling point, melting point, density, etc.) the number of basic units may need to be fairly large; this will also vary with the substance. As of v0.52 this issue is not addressed. This concept must not be construed as a physical object made of some substance (which is the way substances are represented in Cyc - see CycNote below).. PhysicalObjects which are relatively homogeneous (the atmosphere, the ocean) can be construed as consisting of one or more PhysicalSubstances, but they are not substances per se, but specific quantities of a substance, which is one way to view a PhysicalObject. For generality in COSMO, a 'PhysicalSubstance' is the material of which anything with mass is composed, including quantities of subatomic particles that are contained in a certain region of space (such as a plasma in a Tokomak, or a group of electrons in a particle accelerator). However, the term is usually applied only to 'ordinary matter' (solid, liquid, gas); in those cases the unit is an atom or molecule, and the 'grain size' of any PhysicalSubstance that is 'ordinary matter' must contain at least 8 atoms or 8 molecules (so that it can be divided in two in any axis and still have multiple units in the resulting parts). IMPORTANT NOTE: PhysicalSubstances are categorized by the main consitutent. Therefore 'SeaWater' is considered as a subtype of 'Water'. The pure chemical substances can be represented when desirable by creating a 'Pure' category under the general heading (or, if functions are used, by using a '(Pure X)' function.) Thus we have a Type called 'PureWater'. Steel with iron as the majority constituent might be considered as a subtype of 'Iron'. COSMO note: Because substances are represented in COSMO as Types (classes) rather than instances, the specification of properties of substances gets involved, and the intended meanings cannot be specified fully without the use of FOL. As placeholders, some relations between substances are specified, and in OWL these will be interprted as applying only to those specific Substances (Type that are instances of SubstanceType), while the intended meaning is that the relation applies not only to the particular Type but to all subtypes as well. The translation of the OWL ontology to FOL should carefully handle these placeholder relations to be sure they are translated properly. . The restriction on hasGrainDiameter for SubstanceTypes (which see) should require subclasses rather than instances of LengthMeasure - instances may have to be created as a workaround. (still not decided, v0.43). NOTE that a substance at some particular concentration is a subtype of that substance. To expresss that an object contains a particular concentration of a substance, one can create a subclass of that substance having the appropriate concentration attribute, and relate the object to that concentration of substance by the relation 'hasConstituentSubstance'. This representation solves some logical problems, but creates implementation problems in restricted logics such as OWL. COSMO uses relations such as 'hasComponentSubstance', which takes PhysicalSubstance types (instances of the metatype 'SubtanceType') as the 'range' restriction. There are also relations which have subtypes of 'PhysicalSubstance' (instances of 'SubstanceType') as the domain restriction. This can be accommodated in OWL. However, in order to have restrictions apply to subtypes of types, the OWL restriction mechanism interprets the restriction as applying to instances of the type (OWL class). There are no instances of PhysicalSubstance types in COSMO, and the restriction is intended to apply to the subtypes, not to instances. Such restrictions on PhysicalSubstances will have to be interpreted by applications as meaning that the substance represented by the class has those properties. One way to solve the problem might be to create a metatype for each substance Type (i.e. for each of millions of substances), and have the restriction apply to the metatype - but this duplicates Types as metatypes, and is unworkable. COSMO leavee the proper implementation to the application, atl least until it is converted in to an FOL version, where the proper interpretations can be specified by rules. CycNote: In Cyc, PhysicalSubstance's are not represented by a tree in the hierarchy, but are represented by types that are physical objects ('Partiallytangible') and also instances of 'ExistingStufType'. In effect, Cyc considers a 'substance' as the type consisting of all PhysicalObjects that are homogeneous (down to a certain granularity) and having a certain composition. This can be translated into the COSMO representation at the type and instance level, but the Cyc metatypes are not represented in COSMO. See 'HomogeneousObject' Cyc: 'ExistingStuffType' A collection of collections, and a specialization of #$TemporalStuffType. Each instance of #$ExistingStuffType is a collection of things (including portions of things) which are both temporally and spatially stufflike. Division in time or space does not destroy the stufflike quality of the object (down to a certain granularity). (#$isa STUFFTYPE #$ExistingStuffType) implies both (i) for most instances STUFF of STUFFTYPE, for any proper physical part (see #$physicalParts) PART of STUFF, PART is also an instance of STUFFTYPE and (ii) for all instances STUFF of STUFFTYPE, for most proper physical parts PART of STUFF, PART is also an instance of STUFFTYPE. For example, every piece of wood is temporally stufflike: if W-168 is a piece of wood during 1996, then it's also a piece of wood for the one-minute time-slice 9:05am 7/7/96. It's also spatially stufflike: if we take that piece of wood W-168 and cut it in half, we have two things which are both pieces of wood. Since every piece of wood is both temporally and spatially stufflike, #$Wood is an instance of #$ExistingStuffType. Other instances of #$ExistingStuffType include the collections #$AppleJuice, #$IceCream, #$Diamond, #$WaxedPaper, and #$StriatedMuscle. See the comment for #$StuffType to learn more about the distinctions between, and the need for, these four collections: #$StuffType, #$ObjectType, #$ExistingStuffType, and #$ExistingObjectType. The senses 1 and 2 of 'matter' in Random House Webster are conceptually the same as this type, where COSMO interprets sense 2 is the most generic 'matter' of which the instances of sense 1 are subtypes: 1. the substance or substances of which any physical object consists or is composed: the matter of which the earth is made. 2. physical or corporeal substance in general, whether solid, liquid, or gaseous, esp. as distinguished from incorporeal substance, as spirit or mind, or from qualities, actions, and the like. Corresponds to noun sense 2 of 'substance' and sense 1 of 'stuff' and sense 1 of 'matter' and sense 1 of 'material' in WordNet; however, 'substance' is not related to 'stuff' and 'stuff' is not related to 'matter' in WordNet, and 'matter' is not used typically as a synonym of 'substance' in ordinary speech. This difference in usage reflects a difference in the way 'substances' are conceived - as either some abstract stuff of which objects consist, or of the collections of all objects of that composition, as in Cyc. COSMO chooses the notion of an abstract 'stuff'. A noun like 'matter' which, if it were taken to have a collective reading as 'all physical objects, collectively' would thereby conform to the Cyc method of representing PhysicalSubstance, and would then consistently be reinterpreted in COSMO as the same concept as 'PhysicalSubstance'. WN 'substance': 2. (4) substance - (the stuff of which an object consists) WN 'stuff': 1. (6) material, stuff - (the tangible substance that goes into the makeup of a physical object; 'coal is a hard black material'; 'wheat is the stuff they use to make bread') WN material: 1. (448) material, stuff - (the tangible substance that goes into the makeup of a physical object; 'coal is a hard black material'; 'wheat is the stuff they use to make bread') WN 'matter': 1. (41) substance, matter - (that which has mass and occupies space; an atom is the smallest indivisible unit of matter') matter material substance substance2n stuff stuff1n material material1n matter matter1n COSMO note: In COSMO, this is a substance, not an object. 'Matter' is a PhysicalSubstance that has rest mass (i.e. any quantity of Matter has rest mass). This excludes electromagnetic waves, which is included in 'PhysicalSubstance' . A specialization of #$Situation. Each instance of #$Situation-Localized is a situation whose temporal extent occurs at a specific location in space. Notable specializations of #$Situation-Localized include #$PhysiologicalCondition and #$Event-Localized. 71236476-8636-41d7-88b4-b7549eb3213c BFO Definition: A processual entity that is the fiat or bona fide process boundary. BFO Examples: birth, death, the forming of a synapse, the onset of REM sleep, the detaching of a finger in an industrial accident, the final separation of two cells at the end of cell-division, the incision at the beginning of a surgery process_boundary COSMO: this BFO Type is interpreted as an Event, but one that is specifically represented as not a complete Event (i.e. not a 'Process' in BFO). It is unclear under what circumstances designating an Event as 'Fiat' will be useful, but this is included for compatibility. BFO Definition: A processual entity that is part of a process but that does not have bona fide beginnings and endings corresponding to real discontinuities. Examples: chewing during a meal, the middle part of a rainstorm, the worst part of a heart-attack, the most interesting part of Van Gogh's life. COSMO note: In real physical Events, the precise boundaries can be fuzzy, but most Events of interest will have conceptually fairly well-defined beginnings and ends (periods duting which the fluents (attributes) of interest are static), even if those beginnings and ends stretch out over some period of time. We anticipate that most Events will be classified under 'Event' as subtypes of the BFO 'Pocess' which is intended to *not* be a Fiat Process (event). Thus this category may rarely if ever be used for classification. fiat_process_part A FunctionalProcess corresponds to the linguistic intuition of something happening at some point in time, rather than something that has happened in some interval of time, which is an Event. Intuitively, it may be considered as the time derivative of an Event: a Process occurring over some interval of time gives rise to an Event, which is a change (or series of changes) in the properties of some Objects during some interval of Time. Every FunctionalProcess is intimately associated with some Event as one of the components of that Event (see 'Event'). NOTE that this differs from the notion of 'process' used in Cyc, where a Process is a kind of Event that can be subdivided and still result in an Event of the same kind. In COSMO taking some temporal part of a FunctionalProcess does not necessarily result in a FunctionalProcess of the same kind. **NOTE** A FunctionalProcess may also be defined, not by specifying the individual values of the fluents at points in time, but by specifying the manner in which a fluent can change over time. One specific example of this is a **differential equation** which can be used to take the value of a fluent at some starting point in time, and calculate the values at subsequent points in time. Thus a FunctionalProcess can have, as its TimeIndexedAssertion, a differential equation. This is an important difference between Event and FunctionalProcess. @ToDo: the specifics of how a differential equation are to be represented have not been elaborated as of v0.50. Formally, a FunctionalProcess is a Group consisting of one or more TimeIndexedAssertions, where each TimeIndexedAssertion is an InstantaneousState or PersistentState. Each State contains a Group of assertions specifying the values of the fluents that hold at that TimePoint; if only one Object is a participant in the FunctionalProcess, thre may be only one TimeIndexedAssertion in each State. A TimeIndexedAssertion can be a differential equation relating a fluent to time. Thus if, at some point in time, someone is Running, one can say that a Running process exists at that point, and that person is a participant in the process. The 'existence' of an instance of Process at some time point implies that some Event has taken place (or is taking place) in the time interval including that time point, and vice-versa, each Event implies existence of some corresponding FunctionalProcess at every time point during the interval between the beginning and end of the Event (**but see next paragraph**). But for linguistic purposes, it may be more convenient to represent just the Event or just the FunctionalProcess, and not explicitly represent the corresponding entity, which is nevertheless implied. The list of States over time has some similarity to a ValueTimeEntry, though the former relates the state assertions themselves, rather than the values. **It is possible for a FunctionalProcess to be discontinuous, such as an 'eating' process during which one is not actually ingesting anything - perhaps reading a paper in the intervals between taking bites of a meal; or a 'going to school' process during which one sleeps, watches television, etc., other than actually being in the school or studying. One may formally say that the process continues int the intervals when the relevant fluents are not changing, but that the intervals between actual progression of the process each consists of a null process (PersistentState) which is part of the whole process, and give rise to null events which are parts of the whole event.** The term 'process' has been often used to refer to Procedures, (see 'Procedure') which are specifications for some sequence of actions that accomplish a goal. That is a distinct, though somewhat related concept. In some ontologies, (such as Cyc) a 'process' is a type of Event which has some uniform character throughout the Event. Because of the variant usage, the bare term 'process' is not used in this ontology to avoid confusion. Thus this base Type is called 'FunctionalProcess' to specifically refer to its similarity to a mathematical function. It resembles a mathematical function in certain respects: a FunctionalProcess can be said to describe the state of some system as a function of time. Like a function, a FunctionalProcess can have properties, and one important property will be the Rate at which the represented change is occurring. A characteristic of a FunctionalProcess is one can specify a Rate at some time point, or an average rate in some time interval. There is no corresponding Rate that can be specified for an Event, even though the two concepts are otherwise very similar. Most ontologies deal with Events, and ignore Processes of this type. For representing certain linguistic phrases, however, this type is better suited than the Event type. Most FunctionalProcesses are not represented explicitly in COSMO at version 0.3, but when needed may be generated by a function (not yet defined) that takes an Event and returns the Process that is operating to generate that Event. One issue not yet dealt with in COSMO v0.3 is whether a function that can generate a Process from the corresponding Event can handle Events whose definition specifies more than one Fluent as changing during the Event. In such cases, to have a clear relation, the multiple fluents must be ordered similarly in the representation of the Event and its corresponding FunctionalProcess. Each Event in COSMO is a Group of 'TimeIndexedAssertion's, in aggregate representing the changes to the properties (attributes and relations) of one or more objects over some interval of time, and containing the component elements: (1) InstantaneousState at the starting time (2) InstantaneousState at the Ending time (3) The FunctionalProcess that describes the intermediate states between the starting and ending times. **Informally**, a state,process, or event in COSMO is interpreted as the set of *values* of some 'fluents' (attributes or relations that may change over time), but the actual *formal* representation is a Group in which the group elements are the *TimeIndexedAssertions* specifying the values of the fluents pertaining to some Group of Objects, at some TimePoint or TimerInterval. he differences between State, Process,and Event are: State: The Group of Assertions that hold at one time point (InstantaneousState), or persist without change of value over some contiguous interval of time (PersistentState). No value can chage within a State. NOTE that one can represent the state of an individual relation or attribute for some Object, without specifying how other attributes may or may not change. Therfore one can, for example, represent a Feeling as a PersistentState that continues without change in value over somme interval of time, while other attributes or relatikons on the same Person change dramatically. Each attribute of each Object represented in a State can be represented as a State separately from the states of other Objects. FunctionalProcess: The full set of LinguisticAssertions specifying the values of fluents at each time point or smaller TimeInterval within a TimeInterval in which the Process is defined. The set of LinguisticAssertions relate times to values,and in that respect is analogous to a mathematical function. In analogy to a mathematical function, one can derive a 'rate' for a Process (in cases where the values are quantified) by taking the ratio of (difference in value) to (difference in time) for any TimeInterval in which a change of value is specified. This rate may change from time to time during a FunctionalProcess. **NOTE** A FunctionalProcess may also be defined, not by specifying the individual values of the fluents at points in time, but by specifying the manner in which a fluent can change over time. One specific example of this is a **differential equation** which can be used to take the value of a fluent at some starting point in time, and calculate the values at subsequent points in time. Thus a FunctionalProcess can have, as its TimeIndexedAssertion, a differential equation. @ToDo: the specifics of how a differential equation are to be represented have not been elaborated as of v0.50. Event: focuses on the values of the fluents at the beginning and ending of some TimeInterval, but also includes the FunctionalProcess that specifies the fluent values at times between the beginning and ending. Since the focus of an Event is on the change from one time point to the next, one cannot specify a 'rate' in the same sense as for a FunctionalProcess, where the rate may change many times during the FunctionalProcess. For an Event, one can derive a single 'rate' value that specifies the overall ratio of change of fluent value to time, between the beginning and ending points, and for any instance of Event, only one such 'rate' can be defined. Although logically included in each Event are the starting and ending times, (see relations hasStartingTimePoint and hasEndingTimePoint), these may not be known, and creating an instance of Event does not require specifying those times if not known. NOTE that the FunctionalProcess which is a component of the Event *contains* all of the elements contained in the Event, in that it contains itself, and also contains the states at the beginning and end. While *containing* all of those elements, however, it is nevertheless a distinctly different concept, since the 'Event' specifically selects out of the FunctionalProcess the beginning and ending states as characteristic of the Event. The Event is not a FunctionalProcess, but *contains* a FunctionalProcess as a component element. A FunctionalProcess can be derived from an Event, and an Event can be derived from a FunctionalProcess that is defined over some interval of time. A 'FunctionalProcess' that has only one time point in it also represents a special kind of Event, the limiting case of an InstantaneousState. NOTE also that an instance of FunctionalProcess that is defined by a mathematical function relating properties to time must have associated with it some time interval during which it is asserted to be valid, in order to be an instance. NOTE also that this representation of Event does not resemble a perdurantist 'history' which focuses on some region of space-time. Regions of space-time are represented as 'SpatiotemporalRegion' in COSMO, but the only spatial regions of relevance to an Event are those that can be derived from the locations of the Objects that participate in an Event. The significant conceptual components of an Event are the properties ('fluents') of the Objects that participate in the Event, and insofar as the locations of the Objects may be, but are not necessarily, represented in the Event, those locations may be significant, but except in Events solely depicting motion, the locations are incidental rather than central to the changes represented by the Event. Each Event represents one or more changes that occur to the attributes or relations ('fluents') of one or more objects during some defined interval of time (or for abstract Events, within some interval on the dimension of causality); the net changes are represented by the state at the beginning of the event and the state at the end of the Event. In the physical world, real Events typically have multiple intermediate stages, and nothing occurs instantaneously, but some non-physical Events such as a change of title for a Person may occur at a precise moment by prior arrangement. The representation of intermediate stages of an Event can be explicit, with the included events related to the whole event by the 'hasSubEvent' relation or 'hasTemporalPart' relation. The first can be more specific about one of serveral fluents that vary during an event. The temporal part relation between Events must relate a subevent that includes alll of the fluents represented in the whole Event. Each Event includes implicitly a Process that specifies the course of each fluent between the start and end times. At this point (v0.39) there is no explicit representation of the included Process, but each FunctionalProcess will, if represented explicitly, have an associate time granularity indicating the minimal intervals over which the change in the fluents are represented. The size of the granularity intervals during which FunctionalProcess states are represented will depends on the discretion of the ontologist for the purposes of the representation. COSMO note: note that in some ontologies (and situation logics) , 'Event' is used to refer to a change in state that is considered instantaneous. In COSMO, suchan 'Event' is a subtype of the more general event, which is a change in state that occurs over some interval of time (which, for instantaneous changes would be a zero-length time interval). NOTE also that for some Events, such as cyclic Events, merely representing the starting and ending states - which may be identical - loses the whole meaning of the Event; so intermediate states must also be represented in some manner to provide meaning to the Event. Called: Event(Cyc); Process(SUMO); event(DOLCE); Processual(SPAN-BFO) ************ NOTE on BFO 'Process' ****************************** COSMO: BFO the Type most closely representing COSMO 'Event' is 'Process', so that BFO type is made synonymous with ''Event'. BFO makes teh distinction between 'Fiat' events (FiatProcessPart = parts of events) and complete events. This Type represents the complete Event with well-defined beginnings and ends. The FiatProcessPart event is included for compatibility, though not yet used. BFO ('Process') Definition: A processual entity that is a maximally connected spatio-temporal whole and has bona fide beginnings and endings corresponding to real discontinuities. BFO Examples: the life of an organism, the process of sleeping, the process of cell-division ************ NOTE on BFO 'Process' ****************************** Cyc comment: An important specialization of #$Situation and thus also of #$IntangibleIndividual and #$TemporallyExistingThing (qq.v). Each instance of #$Event is a dynamic situation in which the state of the world changes; each instance is something one would say happens . Events are intangible because they are changes per se, not tangible objects that effect and undergo changes. Notable specializations of #$Event include #$Event-Localized, #$PhysicalEvent, #$Action, and #$GeneralizedTransfer. #$Events should not be confused with #$TimeIntervals (q.v.). The temporal bounds of events are delineated by time intervals, but in contrast to many events time intervals have no spatial location or extent. COSMO note: 'Event' was merged with Cyc 'PhysicalEvent' and Cyc 'Event-Localized' The Cyc 'StrictlyMentalEvent' is classified as a PhysicalEvent in COSMO. Cyc: (PhysicalEvent') A specialization of #$Event-Localized. Each instance of #$PhysicalEvent is a spatially localized event involving one or more physical objects or stuffs. #$PhysicalEvents typically involve interaction among #$PartiallyTangibles. But note that a physical event might consist in the creation, destruction, movement, or a change in some physical feature of a single salient physical object. (See #$PhysicalCreationEvent, #$PhysicalDestructionEvent, #$MovementEvent, and #$IntrinsicStateChangeEvent.) For a contrasting (though not necessarily disjoint) collection, see #$StrictlyMentalEvent. For events that have both physical and mental components, see the collection #$CompositePhysicalAndMentalEvent. Cyc ('Event-Localized'): A specialization of #$Event. #$Event-Localized is the collection of all events that occur at a specific location in space. Notable specializations of #$Event-Localized include #$PhysicalEvent and #$AnimalActivity. bd58800d-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 ConceptualWork[Cyc] In COSMO a 'ConceptualWork' (a MentalObject) is classified as an AbstractSymbolicObject, since such works are always created in symbols, though the symbols may have information content - the 'meaning'. COSMO differs somewhat from the Cyc description in that we consider Codes to be included, but have a different usage of the term 'Code'. Cyc: OPENCYC 1: MAY 23, 2002 The collection of abstract works which are the deliberate creations of one or more individuals working in concert, have instantiations [#$instantiationOfCW] which are #$InformationBearingThings, and associated #$AbstractInformationStructures. This is a specialization of #$DevisedPracticeOrWork [q.v.]. For works with propositional content see the more specific collection, #$PropositionalConceptualWork (PCW). Positive examples include: #$MobyDickNovel (as opposed to any instances of #$BookCopy such that (#$instantiationOfCW #$MobyDickNovel BOOK_COPY)), Beethoven's 9th Symphony (as opposed to any performance of this symphony or any copy of its score). Negative examples include: games (performances are not IBTs), awards (they do not have associated #$AbstractInformationStructures), paintings (not abstract), customs (not deliberate creations), natural languages (not a deliberate creation), and codes (their uses, not instantiations, are IBTs). description (from DOLCE-D_S) From DOLCE (Descriptions and Specifications): A description is a social object which represents a conceptualization (e.g. a mental object or state), hence it is generically dependent on some agent and communicable. Descriptions define or use concepts or figures, are expressed by an information object and can be satisfied by situations. The typology of descriptions is still preliminary. In COSMO, a Description is somewhat more specific: it is two or more assertions that all include the same entity as one of the arguments, and it is a MentalObject created to enable an Intelli"gentAgent to understand the nature of that entity. Specification[COSMO-suggested] COSMO: A Specification is a broad category of intentionally created abstract informational artifacts whose purpose is to describe the desired structure or attributes of a thing or a series of steps that may be taken to construct a thing or to accomplish a goal or purpose. It is a mental object having ordered components,the order of which is designed to accomplish a purpose. The ordering may be spatial, temporal, or conceptual. The steps may be abstract things like computational events or game rules, or physical things such as in industrial processes. The format of a formatted document is a specification,i.e. it specifies how a document of that type is to be constructed. Likewise a grammar or computer program is a specification. A specification does not necessarily require that the steps be in sequence. If they must be in sequence, it is a procedure. This differs somewhat from the Cyc 'Specification': Cyc comment: A specialization of #$ConceptualWork. Each instance of #$Specification is an abstract work that constitutes a description of the properties of a #$Situation or a #$SomethingExisting, and sometimes even entire collections of such things. Things are made, bought, and searched for according to specifications, which can be instantiated as printed instructions or as diagrams. This collection is modally neutral with regard to the descriptive character of its instances. Thus, it includes descriptions of how things are, were, should be, must be, etc. This is the most general Type in which to collect patterns of different kinds - visual, sound patterns, numerical patterns, behavioral patterns, etc. In COSMO, a Pattern is a Specification, which means that it is a kind of MentalObject. That means that Patterns do not have existence unless created by IntelligentAgents. This will probably seem odd to some people, who would prefer to think that patterns have an independent existence - especially when geometric figures are subtypes of 'Pattern'. At this point, there is no reason to classify Patterns in any way other than as specifications that people create to classify some types of relations that obejcts within groups of things may have to each other. If some reason is presented to consider patterns as independent of the way people use them, that may be a different concept, or may warrant reclassification. This is the most general Type in which to collect visual patterns - geometric designs, fingerprint patterns, artifact structural patterns, appearances, shapes, outlines, etc.. NOTE that an abstract image itself (e.g. an image of a fingerprint) can be a pattern. A subcollection of #$SpatialThing. Each instance of #$GeometricallyDescribableThing is a spatially-connected spatial thing (of 0, 1, 2, or 3 dimensions) that either (i) has or approximates a simple geometric shape (e.g. it is a #$Line or a #$Hemisphere) or (ii) consists of a number of (connected) parts in a relatively stable geometric configuration, where each such part has or approximates a simple geometric shape (e.g. a table consisting of a 3-D-disc-shaped top and four cylindrical legs). A #$GeometricallyDescribableThing might be tangible (see #$PhysicalObject) or intangible (see #$GeometricallyDescribableThing-Intangible). Note that what counts as approximating a given simple geometric shape -- and thus what spatial things count as #$GeometricallyDescribableThings - varies with context. In a context that was so fine-grained shape-wise that even the shapes of the individual molecules on the surface of an object were considered relevant to the object's shape, perhaps nearly every (connected, solid) tangible object would be geometrically-describable. In more everyday contexts, on the other hand, an unopened can of soup would be geometrically-describable (as a cylinder), while a telephone or an animal's body would probably not. bd58c42e-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A specialization of both #$GeometricallyDescribableThing and #$IntangibleIndividual (qq.v.). This is the collection of all intangible, geometrically-describable things, whether spatially localized or not. #$GeometricallyDescribableThing-Intangible is the intersection (see #$collectionIntersection) of #$GeometricallyDescribableThing and #$Intangible. Examples include any spatially-connected, intangible thing that has or approximates (or which consists entirely of parts that all have or approximate) a simple geometric shape, such as the intangible space determined by a particular Egyptian pyramid, an abstract Platonic sphere, or the center of mass of the solar system (a point) at the first instant of the Twentieth Century in Greenwich, England. Important specializations of this collection are #$GeometricThing-Localized (which includes all spatially localized instances) and #$GeometricThing-Abstract (which includes all instances not spatially located in the empirically-observable universe). c12c73ef-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 An instance of #$GeometricShapeType and a specialization of #$GeometricallyDescribableThing-Intangible and #$HomogeneousExtendedSpaceRegion (qq.v.). This is the collection of geometrical figures, conceived of as bounded (one- or higher-dimensional) regions of space. Neither a single point (see #$GeometricalPoint), nor a sum of scattered points, is an instance of #$Figure-Geometrical. Note that this collection includes line segments, but not unbounded lines. An important specialization of this collection is #$PlaneFigure-Geometrical. The class of all geometric figures, i.e. the class of all abstract, spatial representations. Instance of GeometricFigure are abstract mathematical objects which can be considered as independent of anything in our material universe. They are therefore not MentalObjects, which must be created by people. The instances of this class are GeometricPoints, TwoDimensionalFigures or ThreeDimensionalFigures or any other Object that can be represented as being a distribution of points, lines, planes, volumes, or hypervolumes in some abstract space. be91f0ad-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 hasAttributeValue relates an Object or Substance or Event to some AttributeValue which the Object may have. Each AttributeValue will be a value for at least one AttributeType, but this relation does not specify the AttributeType. For cases where an AttributeValue may measure more than one AttributeType (such as LengthMeasure, which can specify length, width, height, altitude, distance, etc.), using this relation may leave ambiguity as to its precise meaning. COSMO Note: AttributeValues may be either classes (instances of AttributeValueType), or instances of AttributeValue. This allows one to express an attribute as a region (e.g. colors will bw classes, not instances, to permit subclassing), or for quantitative measures as instances (e.g. '25 feet'). For quantitative measures, the representation of measurements as classes would be conceptually permissible (the class representing the set of possible values, determined by the measured value and possible error), or as instances of measure to which an uncertainty value has been attached. The specific subrelations (subproperties, in OWL) of 'hasAttributeValue' will in some cases have their range restricted to AttributeValueType of AttributeValue. isAnAttributeValueOf is the inverse of 'hasAttributeValue'. This relation will be used explicitly only in special cases where particular AttributeValues are appropriately applied only to specific types of things. hasQualitativeAttribute relates individual Objects or substances to some qualitative attribute (a subclass of QualitativeAttributeValue) that the object has. The accurate use of this property for substances is difficult to express in OWL. Since Substances are classes, to describe a qualitative attribute of a substance, in OWL one would need a metatype specifically for each substance, which multiplies reified entities unnecessarily. A FOL rule would be easy to construct to correctly relate the substances to their properties, but for COSMO version 0.2 a work-around for such a rule is not yet on hand. The restrictions on substances should be interpreted as meaning necessary conditions on all subclasses of the substances. A QualitativeAttributeValue is the value of some AttributeType which is not expressed in quantitative measures. It can be an attribute of an abstract thing or of a concrete physical object. NOTE that adjectives expressing qualities in English often have a nominalized form: 'Red-Redness' or 'Beautiful-Beauty'. When linguistically to 'have @Att-nom' (@Att-nom is the nominalized form of an attribute) is the same as 'to be @Att' where @Att is the adjectival form, the concept will be represented only once, usually in the adjectival form, and nominalized form needs to be referenced to the adjectival by the linguistic processor. An EvaluativeAttribute is a QualitativeAttributeValue for some entity, concrete or abstract, that reflects the judgment of an IntelligentAgent regarding that entity. the judgment may be objective or subjective, but will be relative to some purpose. 'contrastsWith' relates one attribute to another attribute that has some contrasting quality eith the first, but is not necessarily a semantic 'opposite' For attributes that are opposite, use the subrelation 'isTheOppositeOf'. There is a hub-and-spoke structure to certain core attributes and related attribute, and the notion of 'conrtast' may be more lexical than conceptual. This relation tries to capture the common cases of contrasts. isTheOppositeOf relates one attribute to another attribute that would be commonly considered the opposite of the first attribute. There is a hub-and-spoke structure to certain core attributes and related attribute, and the notion of 'opposite' is in many cases more lexical than conceptual. This relation tries to capture the common cases of opposites. The property of substances or objects that are considered (by their possesor) to have no positive value. The property of substances or objects that are considered (by their possesor or potential possessor) to have some positive value. Anything that has value to a cognitive agent. The value does not have to be monetary, it can be sentimental. The thing can be an object, a right, a substance, or something intangible such as friendship or knowledge. Anything that would cause distress to an agent if it were lost is a valuable thing. Anything that can be used to help an agent achieve desired goals (e.g. food) is also a valuable thing - see the subtype 'Resource'. Anything that an intelligent agent would pay money to obtain is a valuable thing; in this case, the 'value' is at least approximately quantifiable. Artifact* COSMO note: this class was merged with the Cyc 'Artifact-HumanCreated' because little difference could be discerned. Most instances of Artifact will be created by humans - people, groups, organizations, or their automaton servants. Artifactual objects created by non-humans (e.g. animals) will also be instances of ArtifactObject (e.g. 'SpiderWeb').. Artifact( Cyc and SUMO); material-artifact(DOLCE) SUMO: A CorpuscularObject that is the product of a Making. Cyc comment for ;Artifact-HumanCreated': A collection of individual #$Artifacts. Each instance of #$Artifact-HumanCreated is a tangible thing made by an instance of #$HomoSapiens, or by a (#$GroupFn #$HomoSapiens). Examples include instances of #$Clothing-Generic, #$Automobile, #$DrainageCanal, and #$HydroelectricDam. OPENCYC 1: MAY 23, 2002 A specialization of #$InanimateThing. Each instance of #$Artifact is an at least partially tangible thing which was intentionally created by an #$Agent (or a group of #$Agents working together) to serve some purpose or perform some function. In order to create an instance of #$Artifact, it is not necessary that an #$Agent create the matter out of which the #$Artifact is composed; rather, an #$Agent can create an instance of #$Artifact by assembling or modifying existing matter. Examples of #$Artifacts include a wooden flute that's been whittled from a tree branch, a sawhorse that's been put together out of boards and nails, and a coin that's been minted by embossing or by melting liquid silver into a mold. In addition to the obvious human artifacts (buildings, tools, textiles, power lines), the collection #$Artifact also includes certain sorts of things made by #$Animals, such as bird nests, termite mounds, and beaver dams. Artifacts without any tangible parts are excluded from the collection #$Artifact; they are included in the collection #$Artifact-Intangible. DOLCE: material-artifact: No easy definition of artifactual properties is possible, hence it is better to rely on alternative descriptions and roles: a physical object that shows or is known to have an artifactual origin that counts in the tasks an ontology is supposed to support, will be a material artifact. On the other hand, physical objects that do not show that origin, or that origin is unimportant for the task of the ontology, will be physical bodies. Formally, a restriction is provided here that requires that the collection whose members are (at least some of the) proper parts of a material artifact is *unified* by a plan or project. An instance of #$ObjectType, and a specialization of #$Artifact-Generic. #$Artifact-NonAgentive is the collection of all artifacts that are _not_ agents (i.e., that are _not_ instances of #$Agent-Generic). Specializations of #$Artifact-NonAgentive include #$Bicycle, #$Pants, #$Canal, and #$FoodUtensil. COSMO note: Artifacts are not Agentive in the sense that they are not IntentionalAgents (they can't speak or fporm plans). However, in COSMO an Instrument is an instance of GenericAgent, so the name must not be interpreted as meaning that an Artifact-NonAgentive is not a GenericAgent. Agent-Generic[Cyc]%Agent[DOLCE]%SentientAgent[SUMO] An IntentionalAgent is an Agent that (typically) has the capacity to form a plan of action. Therefore an IntentionalAgent is an Agent to whom some purpose may be assigned - even if only the purpose of survival. The level of intentionality required to belong to this category is not as high as that required to belong to the more specific category of 'IntelligentAgent'. Therefore computer programs that do not approach human-level linguistic capacity, but have some level of intentionality (in this ontology 'SoftwareAgents') will fit in this category. But to belong to this category a comouter program must have a high degree of autonomy - it must be able to reason about situations and form plans that were not directly preprogrammed. As of 2008 it is uncertain whether any such programs exist. @ToDo: NOTE that an IntentionalAgent does not necessarily have to be a PhysicalObject (as of v0.52) because the subtype SoftwareAgent is not a PhysicalObject, and sprits that in religion or folklore have agentive powers are also not PhysicalObjects.. IntentionalAgent is disjoint from Artifact-NonAgentive. This category will also include some non-human animals that can be said to be able to form some plans, however primitive. As of COSMO version 0.3, we include only mammals under this class. If it is shown that other animals can form primitive plans, at that time they may also be added as subtypes of this category. OPENCYC 1: MAY 23, 2002 #$Agent-Generic is the collection of all agents, or things (like #$Animals, #$Robots, #$DivineBeings, etc.) that have desires and intentions and the presumed ability to act on them. An instance of this collection may be an instance of #$AgentiveArtifact or #$Agent (but not both). In SUMO, 'CognitiveAgent' appears to be the approximate equivalent. SUMO: An Agent that has rights but may or may not have responsibilities and the ability to reason. If the latter are present, then the Agent is also an instance of CognitiveAgent. Domesticated animals are an example of SentientAgents that are not also CognitiveAgents. DOLCE: agent: A catch-all class used to join agentive objects (either physical or social). Agents are dispositionally so, in the sense that they internally represent descriptions, and in particular plans, goals and possible actions, but they do not necessarily act. In everyday language, agent is used in this sense, but also to tell that something has acted in a certain way, or to say that something has an initiator or leading role in some action. In DLP, the performs relation encodes these notions. The SUMO approximate equivalent of Cyc 'IntentionalAgent'. An IntelligentAgent is an agent (Person, Organization, GroupOfPeople, or possibly spirits or an intelligent machine) that can form plans, use knowledge in plans, and can communicate in language. Some activities, such as buying things, can only be performed by an IntelligentAgent. Among the natural animals, only people qualify for this status - in this respect, this category differs from the definition given by Cyc (below). Groups of people, or organizations whose acts are in fact carried out by people (or machines directed by people), can be considered as IntelligentAgents - by the convention that the acts carried out by people who are authorized to act in the name of an organization are acts of the organization. (see Organization). To some degree, existing or future computers may also have such a capacity, and would fit into this category, even if the range of linguistic inputs that would generate an appropriate response may be much more limited than for an adult human;'intelligence' is therefore a quantitative attribute, which has a range of values. NOTE that this category needs to be carefully axiomatized so that the system will recognize blocking conditions that may prevent the understanding of language in specific circumstances: for example, an individual person will only understand one or a small number of languages; a person will understand language only when conscious and awake, and able to perceive the input. A human baby will not understand language at birth, and will develop that capacity gradually; nevertheless a human baby is an instance of this Type. Implementing the use of such blocking conditions will be complex, but including any agent type that can normally understand some human or near-human language appears to be preferable to creating a subtype of human that can qualify absolutely as understanding language, without conditions. NOTE that a Person is an IntelligentAgent, and therefore a DeadPerson is also an IntelligentAgent. In most circumstances, one would not consider a DeadPerson as being able to understand language, unless one is within a belief system where spirits survive bodily death. Death is one of the potential blocking conditions for language understanding that will need to be interpreted in context. NOTE that as of 2008, there were no machines that acted on their own behalf, and any action taken by a machine is to be attributed to the agency of the person, organizaton, or GroupOfpeople who directed that machine to act. This is similar to the Cyc #$IntelligentAgent, but COSMO 'IntelligentAgent' excludes non-human animals: Cyc: A specialization of #$Agent-Generic (q.v.) whose instances are all agents capable of knowing and acting, and of employing their knowledge in their actions. An intelligent agent #$knowsAbout certain things, and having #$beliefs (and possibly #$goals) concerning those things may influence its actions. As with agents generally, an intelligent agent might be a single individual or might consist of a group of individual agents (see #$MultiIndividualAgent). Thus persons are intelligent agents, and so are certain social beings like business and government organizations. Some non-human instances of #$Vertebrate that seem to be sentient and somewhat intelligent, such as (arguably) dogs and horses, can also be considered intelligent agents. COSMO note: this type appears to be intended to represent humans and human groups, so it is placed as a subtype of 'IntelligentAgent'. DOLCE only: 'agentive-social-object' A social object that is assumed to internally represent a plan. Since social objects are dependent on physical ones, it is not trivial to interpret the local sense in which a social object 'internally represents' a plan. For example, an institution can have the plan to promote or regulate some activities, but this is possible by means of the powers conferred to it by some legal system, through its representatives, and that plan has to be executed by means of the physical agents that 'act for' the institution. A CollectiveAgent is a human group or organization, acting as a unit or having some other agent acting in its behalf. OPENCYC 1: MAY 23, 2002 (termed MultiIndividualAgent in Cyc) The collection of all #$Agent-Generics that each consist of other #$Agent-Generics operating together. Usually the constituent agents form some kind of #$Group that itself acts as an #$Agent-Generic. Examples: a #$LegalCorporation, a #$GeographicalAgent, a #$Neighborhood or an #$Industry-Localized. Although it would be a positive exemplar of (#$GroupFn #$Agent), the 'group of people whose first names all start with the letter 'B'' is a negative exemplar of #$MultiIndividualAgent. In almost all contexts, such a group will not act as an #$Agent in any way. It is less cohesive than some of the least cohesive kinds of #$MultiIndividualAgents such as #$CrowdOfPeople. NOTE that OpenCyc spatialThing does not necessarily have to be in our Space-Time; it can be in an abstract space. So this is not identical to DOLCE 'spatio-temporal-particular', which is a subclass. OPENCYC 1: MAY 23, 2002 The collection of all things that have a spatial extent or location relative to some other #$SpatialThing or in some embedding space. Note that to say that an entity is a member of this collection is to remain agnostic about two issues. First, a #$SpatialThing may be #$PartiallyTangible (e.g. #$Texas-State) or wholly #$Intangible (e.g. #$ArcticCircle or a line mentioned in a geometric theorem). Second, although we do insist on location relative to another spatial thing or in some embedding space, a #$SpatialThing might or might not be located in the actual physical universe. It is far from clear that all #$SpatialThings are so located: an ideal platonic circle or a trajectory through the phase space of some physical system (e.g.) might not be. If the intent is to imply location in the empirically observable cosmos, the user should employ this collection's specialization, #$SpatialThing-Localized. COSMO: An InformationObject is a MentalObject created by an IntelligentAgent that contains Information in some form. The name 'Information-object' is from DOLCE. Comparable to the OpenCyc '#$AbstractInformationalThing'. This subsumes both the symbolic objects that people may create as well as the yet more abstract informational content ('propositional content') which may be viewed as existing independent of the symbols used to encode it. 'Information' has not been well defined yet, so this category does not have clear defining conditions of its own, but subsumes things like AbstractSymbolicObjects, Propositions, and Languages. Every Communication transfers some InformationObject. DOLCE; Information objects are social objects. They are realized by some entity. They are ordered (expressed according to) by some system for information encoding. Consequently, they are dependent from an encoding as well as from a concrete realization.They can express a description (the ontological equivalent of a meaning/conceptualization), can be about any entity, and can be interpreted by an agent.From a communication perspective, an information object can play the role of 'message'. From a semiotic perspective, it plays the role of 'expression'. OPENCYC 1: MAY 23, 2002\nA heterogeneous collection of abstract objects that pertain to information. Subsumes not only #$Proposition, but also the collections #$Sentence, #$CharacterString, #$AtomicSymbol-Abstract, #$Microtheory, #$PropositionalInformationThing, and #$ConceptualWork. Note that while all #$AbstractInformationalThings are abstract objects (this collection is disjoint with #$SpatialThing-Localized), most instances of this collection can have multiple concrete 'embodiments';. A single instance of #$Sentence can be written on several peices of paper (see #$instantiationOfAIS); a #$PropositionalInformationThing may be the content of several concrete documents, such as instances of #$BookCopy (see #$containsInfoPropositional-IBT); and several events, such as spoken utterances, may have a certain #$Proposition as their content (see #$containsInformation). Note that some instances of #$AbstractInformationalThing have temporal extent. Examples include all instances of #$Novel-CW and #$Movie-CW. Others specs are disjoint with #$TemporalThing. Examples include all instances of #$Character-Abstract and #$Proposition. A collection of spatially-localized individuals, including various actions and events as well as physical objects. Each instance of #$InformationBearingThing (or IBT ) is an item that contains information (for an agent who knows how to interpret it). Examples: a copy of the novel Moby Dick; a signal buoy; a photograph; an elevator sign in Braille; a map; a US dollar bill; a resume; a musical score; copies of the #$CycProgram. For representations of the propositional content of information bearing things, see #$PropositionalInformationThing; but note that not all IBTs have a propositional content (cf. #$ArtObject). An important specialization of #$InformationBearingThing is #$InformationBearingObject, which comprises all of those IBTs that are also physical objects (i.e. #$PartiallyTangibles). Though often a subtle task in particular contexts, it is important to distinguish the various specializations of #$InformationBearingThing from those of #$AspatialInformationStore (whose instances are the chunks of information instantiated in particular IBTs; see #$instantiationOfAIT) and from those of #$ConceptualWork (whose instances are the conceptual or artistic creations that are instantiated in particular IBTs; see #$instantiationOfWork). For instance, #$TextString is a specialization of #$AspatialInformationStore, #$TextualMaterial is a specialization of #$InformationBearingThing, and #$TextualPCW is a specialization of #$ConceptualWork; to conflate any of these with another would be to make a category error . Also note that events in which information is transferred (see #$InformationTransferEvent) are not considered instances of #$InformationBearingThing. Rather, such transfer events have as one of their participants (see #$actors) some instance of #$InformationBearingThing; though in cases where IBTs are themselves events this will require distinguishing very finely between the event that encodes the information and the event that is the information transfer. See also the sense-modality-based specializations, #$SoundInformationBearingThing and #$VisualInformationBearingThing. be436e7e-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A AbstractSymbolicObject is a mental object which is created to serve as a Symbol, i.e. to represent something other than itself. This is not a physical object, but more abstract, such as the letter 'a', which may have representations in billions of different physical objects, but retains its identity as the unique (Roman alphabet) letter 'a'. Every SymbolicObject is represented in at least one PhysicalObject, even if only the brain of the person who created it. The more interesting SymbolicObjects are texts and documents. This Type is approximately equal to,and merged with, the Cyc 'AbstractInformationStructure' From Cyc: OPENCYC 1: MAY 23, 2002\ A subcollection of #$AbstractInformationalThing whose instances involve symbols standing in certain relations to one another. Important specializations include #$CharacterString and #$Sentence. #$AbstractInformationStructure also includes abstract diagrams, graphs, and bit strings. The collection can be more precisely defined as follows: Each #$AbstractInformationStructure is such that each of its physical instantiations (see #$instantiationOfAIS) consists of instantiations of instances of #$AtomicSymbol-Abstract, arranged in a certain way. For example, the abstract sentence 'The pig flies' is an #$AbstractInformationStructure. Each written instantiation of it consists of an instantiation of the words (symbols) 'The', 'pig' and 'flies', written in that order. (If the #$AbstractInformationStructure 'The pig flies' were spoken, the same words would appear in the same order, i.e. 'The' first, etc., but the sequence would be determined by the arrangement of the words in time, rather than space.) Likewise with abstract diagrams, graphs, etc. Each of these is such that their physical instantiations consist of arrangements of instantiations of instances of #$AtomicSymbol-Abstract. A hard copy of a wiring diagram consists of a group of concrete symbols representing various circuit components, in which these symbols are spatially arranged in a certain in way. The arrangement of the concrete symbols in an instantiation of an #$AbstractInformationStructure is not always a simple matter of arrangement in space or time. The sequence of symbols '0010010111011001' can be instantiated in written, spoken, or electronic forms. In the last case, the order of the symbols is determined by conventions concerning the electronic medium in which it is stored, rather than by any common criterion for precedence or subsequence in space or time. A AbstractSymbol is a unit mental object which is created to serve as a Symbol, and cannot be broken in parts without destroying much of the meaning of the symbol. Examples are single characters in some language or graphical icons representing ideas or objects. The more interesting Symbols are texts and images. An AbstractCharacter is an AbstractSymbol that is one of the symbols contained in some linguistic alphabet, or any other symbol used in typography or in the control of format during electronic transmission of information. In information processing systems, any sequence of bits having the proper length for use in strings (e.g., seven bits or eight bits or sixteen bits) can count as an AbstractCharacter, the length depending on the computational context. An AbstractCharacter will have a graphical representation (may have multiple different representations in different fonts), and the graphical representations can be distinguished from each other by their shape, but as an AbstractCharacter per se, it can have properties that are independent of the shape, such as the fact that a certain sequence of characters form a certain word. Therefore it is necessary to maintain the distinciton between an AbstracgtCharacgter and its graphical representation. For example, a pdf document may have page images that consist wholly of representations of text - yet it is stored as an image. The distinction has to be made between such images of text and the AbstractText that is represented by that image, and the distinction must be in the way the image is composed - of lines, pixels, or other graphical elements, whereas the text is a linear arrangement of abstract characters, requiring no specification of graphical form for the characters. Specifying the graphical representation of an AbstractCharacter is not essential to distinguish one AbstractCharacter from another, at the abstract level. An AbstractText is the abstract representation of some linguistic expressions. The text may have formatting, such as columns and rows, beyond simple linear text. Any AbstractText has parts which are also AbstractText - an AbstractText need not be a complete document, but can be part of a document. Cyc: A specialization of #$PartiallyIntangibleIndividual. Each instance of #$InformationStore is a tangible or intangible, concrete or abstract repository of information. The information stored in an information store is stored there as a consequence of the actions of one or more agents. Wholly intangible instances of #$InformationStore include instances of #$AspatialInformationStore and #$PropositionalInformationThing. Some instances of #$InformationStore - namely, instances of #$InformationBearingObject, such as copies of a newspaper at a newsstand - are only partially intangible. beefff28-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 Cyc term: 'AspatialInformationStore' Cyc: A specialization of #$AspatialThing, #$IntangibleIndividual, and #$InformationStore. #$AspatialInformationStore is the collection of all information stores that have no spatial location. Specializations of #$AspatialInformationStore include #$ConceptualWork, #$Microtheory, #$AbstractInformationStructure, and #$FieldOfStudy. Although no instance of #$AspatialInformationStore has a spatial location, some instances can have multiple spatio-temporal embodiments . For example, an instance of #$PropositionalInformationThing may be the content of several concrete documents, such as several instances of #$BookCopy (see #$containsInfoPropositional-IBT); and several distinct events, such as spoken utterances, may have a certain unique #$Proposition as their content (see #$containsInformation). bdff6c64-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A 'DigitalInformationStore' is the PhysicalObject that contains digital information, whether in the memory chips of a computer, on hard isk, on CD-ROM, or in digitally encoded form in paper. This is distinguished from the AbstractDocument that is represented by such physical media, and is also distinguished from ordinary physical texts or documents written on some physical medium in a visually readable form in somme humaninterpretable symbols system, whether alohabetic or iconic.. COSMO note: in COSMO this type is abstract and does not include physical objects. Cyc: A specialization of both #$InformationStore and #$PartiallyIntangibleIndividual. Each instance of #$StructuredInformationSource is an #$InformationStore in which bits of information are represented as related in a systematic way that is easily characterized by some type of formal structure, including spatial or architectural terms (used metaphorically). Examples include: a database organized in fields and values; a spreadsheet organized in rows and columns with entries; an organizational tree diagram with nodes and branches; a topographical map; a document written in HTML (hyper-text markup language). Negative examples include computer programs, poems, and novels. A specialization of both #$MathematicalObject and #$StructuredInformationSource. Each instance of #$Tuple is a complex consisting of one or more indexed (and possibly ordered) components; it might be a single, a pair, a triple, or so on; and the components might be things of any sort whatsoever (see #$memberOfTuple). For example, a specialization of #$Tuple is #$NTupleOfIntervals (q.v.), whose instances are tuples consisting exclusively of #$ScalarIntervals (q.v.); e.g. complex numbers and physical vectors are n-tuple-intervals. Another specialization of #$Tuple is #$List (q.v.), whose instances are ordered. Each tuple has an associated index set : the set of things that serve (via an associated indexing function ) to index or individually represent the tuple's members (see #$tupleIndexSet and #$tupleMemberIndex). If the index set for a given tuple is the set of positive integers (or an initial segment thereof), then the integers' usual ordering serves to order the tuple's components, and the tuple is in fact an _ordered_n-tuple_, i.e. it is a #$List. But in general any set (e.g. the column names in a relational database) may be used to index the components of a tuple. bd58f8d8-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A List is a MentalObject, i.e. an Object without mass created by an IntelligentAgent, with the distinctive character that it is a linearly ordered arrangement of AbstractSymbolicObjects. A List may be empty, and has its own properties in addition to the properties of the constituent elements, therefore it is not a Group. Note that AbstractStrings are subtype of List. A List is ordered, and it can have the same entity in different positions in the llist. It is not a type of Set. A List has a 'first' and 'rest' component. The 'rest' can be another list, or null. Therefore a list may have one element (or none) Cyc comment: A specialization of #$Tuple. Each instance of #$List is a finite sequence of things with a first and last member-position, with each member-position other than the last having a successor member-position. As with tuples generally, lists allow for repetition of their members, so that the same item can appear at multiple member-positions in the same list. A list can be represented formally as a function from a finite index set of counting numbers, beginning with one, into the domain of all #$Things (but note that #$Lists are _not_ explicitly represented as functions in the Cyc ontology). Unlike an instance of #$Series (q.v.), a list is purely abstract (i.e. both aspatial and atemporal), and the only implied relation between an item and its successor in a list is the successor relation of the list itself. Technically, #$List is more specific than #$Tuple only in that the index set (see #$tupleIndexSet) for a given list must be the counting numbers in their usual order (or some initial segment thereof), whereas the index set for a tuple, generally speaking, might be any set whatsoever. isInList relates some symbol to a List that contains that symbol as an element. SUMO (named 'inList' in SUMO): The analog of 'element' and 'instance' for Lists. (inList ?OBJ ?LIST) means that ?OBJ is in the List ?LIST. For example, (inList Tuesday (ListFn Monday Tuesday Wednesday)) would be true. An AbstractString is a linear array (A List) of basic characters in some character set (not necessarily just an alphabet). It is the abstract representation of the characters, and the base string will not have any formatting, either of font or size or capitalization. Formatting can be represented as attributes of a String. Every defined instance of AbstractString should be represented by a datatype String using the relation 'hasStringRepresentation', unless it is a binary string, or has a number of bits that is not evenly divisible by 8 (in which case, a BinaryString should be used). The name of the AbstractString in the ontology can be very much shorter than the actual String represented; e.g. the string representation of AbstractString 'WarAndPeace' might be the full text of a long book.. wasCreatedBy relates an Artifact (concrete or abstract) to the Agent or Agents who created it. Knowing the identity of one creator (e.g. of an artifact) does not guarantee that one knows the identity of all creators. @ToDo: NOTE: as of v0.52, ArtificialSubstance is included in the domain as a subtype of 'Artifact-generic', but this should be restricted to objects, since it is quantities of ArtificialSubstance that are actually created by agents, not the abstract substance. Change the range to some subtype of 'Artifact-generic'?? NOTE that the range includes an AbstractString, which is semantically nonsense, but is included as a pragmatic tactic to allow subrelations of this relation to be used in mapping database records to their creators. The creators will sometimes be represented in the database only as a string, and in such cases an implementing system, at its option, can avoid creating a new Person object (instead creating an AbstractString object), when the system cannot identify the 'creator' of the record. This tactic may change as the ontology is further developed, and experience with mapping databases increases.. An Artifact-Generic was anything created by an Agent. More useful categories will be the more specific Types. Original COSMO Indented List name: Artifact-Generic_includes_conceptual_works__laws__information_objects_ OPENCYC 1: MAY 23, 2002 A collection of things created by #$Agents. These creations may be either tangible (like a hammer, a bowl, or a bridge) or intangible (like a set of laws, a #$KnowledgeBase, or Beethoven's Ninth Symphony). Thus, the collection of #$Artifact-Generics is partitioned into #$Artifact and #$Artifact-Intangible (q.v.). OPENCYC 1: MAY 23, 2002 The collection of wholly intangible individuals, a specialization of both #$Intangible and #$Individual. Instances of #$IntangibleIndividual are immaterial, and thus do not have mass, color, or other tangible qualities. Examples include mathematical objects (such as numbers, functions, and relations), attributes, time intervals, space regions, and events. Excluded are sets and collections because, although intangible, they are not individuals. IntangibleIndividual* An Object4D is an Object extended in time, making it effectively four-dimensiona. This is the object that is used to represent physical objects in a Perdurantist ontology. See 'Object' and 'PhysicalObject' for further discussion. the type Object4D is disjoint from the type Object3D. An Object4D can have a TimeSlice, but an Object3D cannot. The preferred representation of PhysicalObjects uses the type PhysicalObject and its subtypes, which are subtypes of the more general Object, Object4D and Object3D are included only to enable representation of explicitly perdurantist or endurantist ontologies. An Object3D is an Object *not* extended in time, making it only three-dimensional. In COSMO assertions on what are instances of Object3d in a purely endurantist ontology are equivalent to assertions on the dimension-neutral 'Object'. However, an instance of Object3D cannot also be an instance of TimeSlice. See 'Object' and 'PhysicalObject' for further discussion. The type Object4D is disjoint from the type Object3D. An Object4D can have a TimeSlice, but an Object3D cannot. The preferred representation of PhysicalObjects uses the type PhysicalObject and its subtypes, which are subtypes of the more general Object, not of Object3D, Object4D and Object3D are included only to enable representation of explicitly perdurantist or endurantist ontologies. SetOrCollection[Cyc]%SetOrClass[SUMO] COSMO: SetOrType is the union of theTypes Set and Type. 'Type' in COSMO is used to refer to those intensionally-defined groupings called: Class in Ontolingua and Protege; Class in RDF and OWL; Class in SUMO; Collection in OpenCyc; Universal in DOLCE; Property in Ontology Works' IODE system * The Class 'Type' in COSMO is intended to be equivalent to the classes by those names in those other ontologies. * (isaSubtypeOf A B) means that Type A is a subtype of Type B and that all instance of Type A are also instances of Type B. COSMO: hasUnitObject relates a PhysicalSubstance to the PhysicalObjects that are the characteristic objects that constitute the substance. For example, a ChemicalElement hasUnitObject Atom. consistsOfMany relates a granular material consisting of multiple individual objects of the same type (e.g. sand), considered as a Substance, to the individual objects. This is similar to and a subproperty of 'hasUnitObject', but is restricted to granular materials, whereas the parent 'hasUnitObject' can be used to treat large quantities of any object as a substance. hasShape relates abstrct figures, substances, substance types, or individual objects to one or more shapes that describe the spatial form of that entity. When applied to substances, the shape description (e.g. 'lumpy') will be interpreted as a description of objects (quantities of substance) that are composed predominantly of that substance. For abstract geometric figures, the shape may be precise, with infinitely precise edges. For real-world objects, the shape will be only approximate, and in some cases very approximate. QuantitativeAttributeType is a metatype which is a specialization of the Protege owl:Class that can serve as type for QuantitativeAttributes (length, mass), and an argument restriction for various relations on AttributeType types. This is a primitive mechanism to accommodate OWL limitations on relation arguments. A PhysicalQuantity is a measurable quantity that has a numerical value qualifying a UnitOfMeasure. In one notation, a mass of 25 grams could be expressed as '{25 grams}' where 'grams' is a function that returns a MassMeasure. PhysicalQuantities are measures of attributes of objects in our real world, and as such are subject to uncertainty, also called 'measurement error'. PhysicalQuantity has an attribute of 'MeasurementUncertainty', which is an optional attribute. When a MeasurementUncertainty is not explicitly provided with an instance of PhysicalQuantity, each implementing system has the option to designate default uncertainties, which may be general or specific to particular categories of measurement. COSMO note: PhysicalQuantities in COSMO are categorized both as quantities, and as AttributeValues. Conceptually, to be viewed as an attribute, some combination of AttributeType and AttributeValue would both be involved (e.g. 'a length of 30 cm'). But at this point (v0.3) it does not appear necessary to represent such quantitative attributes in that explicit manner. This issue remains open for possible future elaboration. SUMO: A PhysicalQuantity is a measure of some quantifiable aspect of the modeled world, such as 'the earth's diameter' (a constant length) and 'the stress in a loaded deformable solid' (a measure of stress, which is a function of three spatial coordinates). All PhysicalQuantities are either ConstantQuantities or FunctionQuantities. Instances of ConstantQuantity are dependent on a UnitOfMeasure, while instances of FunctionQuantity are Functions that map instances of ConstantQuantity to other instances of ConstantQuantity (e.g., TimeDependentQuantities are FunctionQuantities). Although the name and definition of PhysicalQuantity is borrowed from physics, PhysicalQuantities need not be material. Aside from the dimensions of length, time, velocity, etc., nonphysical dimensions such as currency are also possible. Accordingly, amounts of money would be instances of PhysicalQuantity. PhysicalQuantities are distinguished from Numbers by the fact that the former are associated with a dimension of measurement. A QuantitativeAttributeValue is a value for some AttributeType which is expressed in quantitative measures, comnsisting of a quantifier and a unit of measure.. Examples (using the ESKIF format) are {10 feet} and {32 degreesF}. In formalisms such as OWL that do not have function terms or higher-arity relations, each such QuantitativeAttributeValue must be constructed as an instance that has relations pointing to the quantifier and the UnitOfMeasure. In OWL, where bare numbers are not allowed as labels for elements, the numbers may be represented using a NamespacePrefix in front of the number, such as N_10 (for 10) (for a range) R_29-30. Each instance of QuantitativeAttributeValue is an OrderedPair, the first element of which is a Quantifier (or QuantifierType) and the second element a UnitOfMeasure. A QuantifierType is allowed as a value in order to represent reified ranges of values. See 'GreaterThanHalf' for an example. When an instance of QuantitativeAttributeValue is represented by creating a reified instance, the UnitOfMeasure and the quantifier are specified by using the relations 'hasUnit' and 'hasQuantifier' to specify , respectively. . If an implementation allows use of functions, a QuantitativeAttributeValue can be represented, without reification in the ontology, as a function term such as {25.6 feet} or {N_25.6 feet}, depending on whether the implementation allows bare numbers in expressions. The NamespacePrefix 'N_' can be used for numbers, and 'R_' can be used for NumberRanges. Quantities can be numbers (integer, real, imaginary) or number ranges or approximate numbers, or distributions, or restricted ranges (greater than or less than), or PhysicalQuantities, which are measures. Numbers may have different qualitative dimensions (scales), and quantitative comparisons will generally only be meaningful when two numbers are expressed on the same scale. 'Ordered' is an AttributeValue of Groups that have some kind of ordering. More specific orderings will be subtypes of this AttributeValue, such as 'LinearlyOrdered' 'Ordered' is an AttributeValue of Groups that have some kind of ordering. More specific orderings will be subtypes of this Attributealue, such as 'LinearlyOrdered' An OrderedGroup is a Group that has some ordering relation between component elements. It usually has more than one component element, but to allow generalization of certain concepts such as an ActionSeries, an OrderedGroup is allowed to have as few as one component element. The ordering may be of any kind: a simple linear order, or a complex multi-dimensional pattern. The most common kind of OrderedGroup is one that is linearly ordered, and each such Group is an instance of the subtype 'LinearlyOrderedGroup'. An OrderedGroup may be physical, whereas a List is an AbstractInformationStore. Therefore not all OrderedGroups are Lists. One may define an OrderedGroup that is a List, if one is careful that the OrderedGroup is also an AbstractInformationStore. hasComponentElement relates a Group to the individual elements of which the group consists. Any entity can be aggregated with another entity to form a conceptual Group. NOTE: this 'element' is not the chemical 'element'! See also the specializations of this relation, for OrderedGroups, indicating the location in the OrderedGroup of a particular element. See 'hasFirstElement' and 'hasSecondElement'. isaComponentElementOf relates some entity to a Group of which it is a member. It is the inverse of 'hasComponentElement'. Since Groups are not defined arbitrarily, and seldom defined automatically, this relation will typically be used only when it makes sense to do so. For example, one may define a Group of 'attendees' of some particular meeting. Then to say that a Person is a member of that Group would allow inference that that Person was in a particular place at a particular time.. hasFirstElement is a specialization of the relation 'hasComponentElement' applying to OrderedGroups or Lists, specifying the first component element of the OrderedGroup or List. hasSecondElement is a specialization of the relation 'hasComponentElement' applying to OrderedGroups, specifying the Second component element of an OrderedGroup. hasThirdElement is a specialization of the relation 'hasComponentElement' applying to OrderedGroups, specifying the Third component element of an OrderedGroup. A standard of measurement for some dimension. For example, the Meter is a UnitOfMeasure for the dimension of length, as is the Inch. There is no intrinsic property of a UnitOfMeasure that makes it primitive or fundamental; rather, a system of units (e.g. SystemeInternationalUnit) defines a set of orthogonal dimensions and assigns units for each. NOTE that each UnitOfMeasure is represented as a 'QuantitativeAttributeValue' which means that it has a Quantifier and a UnitOfMeasure. This convention means that a unit of measure is just *some* instance of measure that is chosen as the 'unit'. This requires that the Quantifier be the number 1, and the UnitOfmeasure be the unit itself. This may seem a bit peculiar, and might be changed if it seems desirable. Cyc: A specialization of #$ScalarDenotingFunction (q.v.). Each instance of #$UnitOfMeasure is a function that takes one or two numbers or other #$NumericIntervals as arguments, and returns as value a #$MeasurableQuantity (q.v.), such as a #$Distance or a #$Speed or a #$Volume. If a unit of measure is applied to one number (see #$Number-General) the result is a precise quantity that is a #$ScalarPointValue; if applied to two (different) numbers -- or to one (or two) #$ProperIntervalOnNumberLine(s) -- the result is a closed-interval quantity that is a #$ScalarProperInterval. For example, (#$Meter 5) is the distance five meters and (#$Meter 5 10) is the distance five to ten meters (inclusive) . (A partial exception to the above is the unit-of-measure #$Unity (q.v.), which always returns a #$NumericInterval rather than a #$MeasurableQuantity.) Specializations of #$UnitOfMeasure grouped by what they measure include #$UnitOfTime, #$UnitOfSpeed, and #$UnitOfVolume. Other specializations are #$OneDimensionalUnitOfMeasure, #$MultiDimensionalUnitOfMeasure, #$UnitOfMeasureWithPrefix and #$UnitOfMeasureNoPrefix. bd5880aa-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 The UnitOfMeasure for a number, which may be a limit (e.g. > 3, lessThan 5). The UnitOfMeasure that measures the hour(s) within one day, or within a twelve-hour period of Am or PM. Considered as an adverb in WordNet: . (16) o'clock - (according to the clock; 'it's three o'clock in Tokyo now') o'clock o'clock o'clock1adv hasValue relates an Attribute to the Value of the attribute. The value may be qualitative (Flexible) or quantitative {10 feet}. NOTE that AttributeValues can take the form of either instances of AttributeValue or *subtypes* of AttributeValue, which are instances of AttributevalueType. The latter are used to allow for subclassing of AttributeValues, to allow inferring that having one value also implies having its parent AttributeValues (up to the least specific value). hasUnit relates an Attribute or QuantitativeAttributeValue to the UnitOfMeasure in which the value is expressed. For a length, for example, this might be meters, feet, miles, etc.. This relation may be used to relate quantitativeAttributes directly to their UnitOfMeasure (if they are quantiative attributes), or to relate the QuantitativeAttributeValue to its UnitOfMeasure. The direct relations allows one to specify QuantitativeAttributeValues without reifying the AttributeValue in addition to the Attribute. hasMeasure relates a QuantitativeAttributeValue to the AttributeType that the QuantitativeAttributeValue is a measure of. A LengthMeasure, for example, could be a measure of a distance, a diameter, a girth, oany other property or relation expressed in units of distance. A Pair is a Group containing exactly two elements. 2 A LinearlyOrderedGroup is a Group that has a linear ordering, which is a mapping from the natural numbers to elements of the Group. It will usually have more than one element, but may have only one. A Measurement is an OrderedPair representing the result of a MeasurementEvent. It is an abstract representation of a MeasurableQuantity. Each instance of Measurement is an OrderedPair in which the first element is a UnitOfMeasure or other Quantifiable AttributeValue, and the second element is a quantity expressing some kind of magnitude associated with that UnitOfMeasure. The magnitude will typically be a number indicating, for example, how many individuals have that attribute, or a percentage indicating what fraction of a group have that Attribute. A Prevalence will typically be one element of a Distribution. NOTE that a Measurement does not have to use actual numbers in the 'Quantifier' field - a Measurement may be approximate, using quantities like 'High', 'Low', etc. qualifying an AttributeValue, but it does have to modify a unit of measure. COSMO note: A MeasurableQuantity is some attribute of which a number (or other quantifier) is a part, and also has a unit of measure. This is disjoint from pure numbers. Cyc: A specialization of #$Quantity (q.v.). This is the collection of quantities that have a numeric component and could actually be used to measure something, as opposed to (say) merely ranking it on a scale. Arithmetic operations (such as addition and multiplication) can be performed on measurable quantities, as they can on purely numeric scalars (see #$NumericInterval). Specializations of #$MeasurableQuantity include #$Distance, #$Temperature, #$Mass, and #$Time-Quantity. Other, broader specializations are #$OneDimensionalQuantity, #$TwoDimensionalQuantity, and #$ThreeDimensionalQuantity. Any quantity (that at least in principle could be) returned by a #$UnitOfMeasure (q.v.) function is a measurable quantity. In CycL, particular measurable quantities are usually represented as the result of applying a unit-of-measure function to a real number or pair of reals. For example, (#$Meter 5) is the distance 5 meters. afed8d1a-9eec-41d8-9da0-be55cb160c1a hasRepresentation is the most general relation that points from some concept or thing - of any type - to another thing (abstract or physical) that represents it in some way. This relation will be used, if at all, less frequently than the more specific 'representation' relations, and may be useful primarily to collect those more specific relations in one location to make the representation relations easier to understand. The related relation 'hasURL' points to a datatype string that is the address of some file relevant to the subject entity. As a datatype relation, hasAbstractRepresentation relates some entity - concrete or abstract - to a MentalObject that represents - or contains a part that represents - that entity. The mental object is itself abstract in the sense of having no mass. A common example of an abstract representation is the word (string of characters) 'cat', representing a small furry animal. NOTE that a document may have more than one abstract representation; for example, the content could be represented by an abstract formatted text, or by an unformatted text, or by the logical content of the text. NOTE that an AbstractRepresentation (such as an AbstractImage) of a person will contain an abstract representation of that person, but may also contain (and thus be, in this sense) an abstract representation of the clothing or accessories that person is wearing, or of the chair s/he is sitting in, or of the cat next in his/her lap, or of anything else in that image. NOTE also that, just as the representation pointed to by this relation may only have a part that actually represents the subject matter (other parts may represent other subject matters), the subject of the inverse relation 'isanAbstractRepresentationOf' may only have a part that is the representation of the object - for example, an abstract image may have many people in it, and it will be an abstract representation of each of those people, individually. of that relation. points from an abstract representation (for example, an AbstractString or AbstractImage) of something to that thing it represents. The abstract string 'the cat' could point to a specific instance of a cat A DateTimeExtendedGroup string would point to a TimeInterval. hasQuantifier relates a QuantitativeAttributeValue to the quantifier that indicates how many units large the value is. A OrderedPair is a Tuple containing two elements. A Number is both a Quantity and an Object. This contrasts with PhysicalQuantity, which is a Quantity and an AttributeValue. Pure numbers and physical quantities (numbers plus units of measure) are disjoint entities. Any Number that can be expressed as a (possibly infinite) decimal, i.e. any Number that has a position on the number line. A NumberRange is a Quantifier that is mostly used with units of measure, to express the idea that a measure falls within that range. Instances of NumberRange can be represented in COSMO by using the NamespacePrefix 'R_' in front of the range, which is the lower number and higher number separated by a hyphen. Thus the NumberRange 25 to 30 can be reified by creating an instance of NumberRange labeled 'R_25-30'. Using this formalism, a measure that is within the range of 30 to 32 meters could be represented by the function term (in ESKIF) '{R_25-30 meters)'. In implementations that allow the use of bare numbers in an expression, two numbers separated by a hyphen (e.g. '25-30') might be interpreted as a range, rather than as a number derived by subtraction Programs interpreting such a NumberRange may use it as required for the local application. A NumberRange in which the lower number of the range is not included in the range, but the upper number is. 'hasLowerLimit' relates an instance of 'Number' or 'NumberRange' to a datatype number, which is below or equal to the lowest possible value for the RealNumber. Whether the limit is inclusive or exclusive depends on the context in which it is used. This is a way to relate reified instances of number in the ontology to datatype numbers. See, for example,'GreaterThanHalf'. 'hasUpperLimit' relates an instance of 'Number' or 'NumberRange' to a datatype number, which is above or equal to the highest possible value for the RealNumber. Whether the limit is inclusive or exclusive depends on the context in which it is used. This is a way to relate reified instances of number in the ontology to datatype numbers. Any Number in some range that is greater than the specified value, related by the 'hasLowerLimit' relation. The range of permitted values does not include the limit. The implementation will have to interpret these numbers in whatever manner less-than and greater-than numbers are interpreted. 'GreaterThanHalf' is the type including all RealNumbers that have a numerical value greater than 0.5. 0.5 Any Number in some range that is less than the specified value, related by the 'hasUpperLimit' relation. The range of permitted values does not include the limit. The implementation will have to interpret these numbers in whatever manner less-than and greater-than numbers are interpreted. Any RealNumber that is not also a RationalNumber. A RealNumber that is greater than or equal to zero. A RealNumber that is less than zero. A RealNumber that is greater than zero. Any RealNumber that is the product of dividing two Integers. To represent a fraction in the name of a RationalNumber, the prefix 'N_' should be used, and to separate the two integers, an underscore can be used (to stay within the OWL naming conventions). Thus three-halves would be named 'N_3_2',and two-thirds would be 'N_2_3'. However, percents, which are also rational numbers, will have a different naming scheme. The class of Synonyms has two uses: (1) When a synonymous term is included as a subtype of Synonym, it allows searching for a Type by more than one term, in the case where the alternative term(s) are also unique in the ontology. For example, where Cyc class names (but not meanings) have been changed, the Cyc term may also be included as a Synonym. We use the isaSynonymOf relation to relate Synonym classes to the class with the base name. (2) when used with the 'hasSynonym' relation, instances of Synonym can specify the context (such as namespace) in which the second term is a synonym of the first, and can indicate the overall frequency with which the term in that context actually has the same meaning as the base term. Since there can be multiple instances of the same synonymous term, it is represented as a datatype String entity. NOTE that instances of Synonym need to have unique id's as their identifiers in the ontology, so it is recommended that the unique ID's be generated by prefixing a namespace to the synonymous term that is pointed to by the 'hasSynonymousTerm' property of the Synonym instance. Thus if some term has the synonym 'process' in the PSL context, the instance of Synonym that specifies that relation can be named, e.g. 'PSL$process'. The general English contexts, where words may be ambiguous, is indicated by the namespace prefix 'engen'. hasSynonym is used to point to AbstractStrings that can serve as a synonym for the base entity (type or instance), in some context. This relation points to an instance of Synonym, and that instance can specify the context in which it is a synonym for that word. Because a single word can be a synonym of multiple terms, the structure of the 'Synonym' entity includes not only the String expression of the synonymous term, but also the context in which it is a synonym. Among the contexts, databases and other knowledge models are included. 0.5 0.333333333333333 0.25 0.20 0.6666666666666666 1.5 2.5 COSMO note: this is not a pure ratio, but a MeasurableQuantity that is a ratio of other MeasurableQuantities. It is represented, as are other MeasurableQuantities, as a Quantifier and a unit. In this case the quantifier is a ratio and therefore a RationalNumber, and the unit is expressed as a ratio of other units. Cyc: A specialization of #$MultiDimensionalQuantity (q.v.). Each instance of #$RatioQuantity is a quantity that is derivable (via #$QuotientFn) as a ratio of other quantities. For example, (#$MilesPerHour 65) is a ratio quantity obtainable by dividing (#$Mile 65) by (#$HoursDuration 1); and (#$PoundsPerSquareInch 50) is equal to (#$QuotientFn (#$Pound-UnitOfForce 50) (#$SquaredFn (#$Inch 1))) . Ratio quantities are used for measuring a difference or change in one quantity against a (usually incremental) difference or change in another quantity. When the later quantity is a #$Time-Quantity (as in the first example above), the ratio quantity is an instance of the specialization #$Rate. See also #$PerFn. 845b6f34-6aa7-41d7-8bba-c3bd93f1a360 A DimensionlessRatio is a ratio of quantities in which the dimension of the numerator is the same as the dimension of the denominator, resulting in a dimensionless number. However, this type is for ratios of measures, and the resulting number is not a pure number, but a measure with the dimension 'dimensionless'. The Quantifier is a RationalNumber. Each DimensionlessRatio can be labeled by using the 'RTO_' namespace prefix, and an underscore between the numerator and denominator; see 'RationalNumber' for more similar treatment of the labels for RationalNumbers. Thus a DimensionlessRatio of one-third could be labeled 'RTO_1_3'. A RationalNumber that expresses a ratio of one quantity to another, multiplied by one hundred. This is distinguished from a pure number only in that it has the dimension 'percent'. For its use to express distributions, see 'PercentageAttribute'. A negative or nonnegative whole number. An Integer that is greater than or equal to zero. 0.0 1 100 'isWithinAnOrderOfMagnitudeOf' relates one numerical quantity (dimensionless number or ConstantQuantity) to another and asserts that the ratio r of the numerical values of the two fall in the range 10 > r > 0.1 Thus: {{3 meters} isWithinAnOrderOfMagnitudeOf {10 meters}}. 'isWithinaFactorOfTwoOf' relates one numerical quantity (dimensionless Number or ConstantQuantity) to another and asserts that the ratio r of the numerical values of the two fall in the range 2 > r > 0.5 Thus: {{3 meters} isWithinaFactorOfTwoOf {2 meters}}. 'isApproximatelyEqualTo' relates one numerical quantity (dimensionless Number or ConstantQuantity) to another and asserts that the ratio r of the numerical values of the two fall in the range 1.5 > r > 0.6667. Thus: {{4 meters} isApproximatelyEqualTo {3 meters}}. 'isAlmostTheSameAs' relates one numerical quantity (dimensionless Number or ConstantQuantity) to another and asserts that the ratio r of the numerical values of the two fall in the range 1.11111 > r > 0.9. Thus: {{10 meters} isApproximatelyEqualTo 11 meters}}. COSMO note: the quantities related by this relation must be instances of types in the ontology, not datatype quantities. Cyc: A #$NumericComparisonPredicate that is a generalization of the mathematical less-than ( < ) relation to #$ScalarIntervals (q.v.) of all sorts, including quantitative intervals as well as point values (see #$ScalarPointValue). (#$lessThan VALUE1 VALUE2) means that VALUE1 is less than VALUE2 with respect to some scale that they are both on. More precisely, there is some #$TotallyOrderedScalarIntervalType SCALE that both VALUE1 and VALUE2 are instances of and either (i) SCALE is a specialization of #$NumericValue (e.g. #$RealNumber) and the maximum (see #$maxQuantValue) of VALUE1 is less than the minimum (see #$minQuantValue) of VALUE2 or (ii) (#$followingValueOnScale VALUE1 VALUE2 SCALE) holds. Note that #$lessThan is an #$ELRelation (q.v.), and the above sentence would actually canonicalize to (#$greaterThan VALUE2 VALUE1). bd5880b1-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A #$NumericComparisonPredicate that is a generalization of the mathematical less-than-or-equal-to ( <= ) relation to #$ScalarIntervals (q.v.) of all sorts, including quantitative intervals as well as point values (see #$ScalarPointValue). (#$lessThanOrEqualTo VALUE1 VALUE2) means that VALUE1 is less than or equal to VALUE2 with respect to some scale that they are both on. More precisely, there is some #$TotallyOrderedScalarIntervalType SCALE that both VALUE1 and VALUE2 are instances of and either (i) SCALE is a specialization of #$NumericValue (e.g. #$RealNumber) and the maximum (see #$maxQuantValue) of VALUE1 is less than or equal to the minimum (see #$minQuantValue) of VALUE2, (ii) (#$followingValueOnScale VALUE1 VALUE2 SCALE) holds, or (iii) (#$equals VALUE1 VALUE2) holds. Note that #$lessThanOrEqualTo is an #$ELRelation (q.v.), and the above sentence would actually canonicalize to (#$greaterThanOrEqualTo VALUE2 VALUE1). bd5880b0-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A #$NumericComparisonPredicate (q.v.) that is a generalization of the mathematical greater-than-or equal-to (>=;) relation to #$ScalarIntervals (q.v.) of all sorts, including quantitative intervals (see #$NumericInterval and #$Quantity) as well as point values (see #$ScalarPointValue). (#$greaterThanOrEqualTo VALUE1 VALUE2) means that VALUE1 is greater than or equal to VALUE2 with respect to some scale that they are both on. More precisely, there is some #$TotallyOrderedScalarIntervalType SCALE; that both VALUE1; and VALUE2; are instances of and either (i) SCALE; is a specialization of #$NumericInterval (e.g. #$RealNumber) and the minimum (see #$minQuantValue) of VALUE1; is greater than or equal to the maximum (see #$maxQuantValue) of VALUE2;, (ii) (#$followingValueOnScale VALUE2 VALUE1 SCALE); holds, or (iii) (#$equals VALUE1 VALUE2); holds. See also #$greaterThan and #$lessThanOrEqualTo. bd5880af-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A #$NumericComparisonPredicate that is a generalization of the mathematical greater-than ( > ) relation to #$ScalarIntervals (q.v.) of all sorts, including quantitative intervals (see #$NumericInterval and #$MeasurableQuantity) as well as point values (see #$ScalarPointValue). (#$greaterThan VALUE1 VALUE2); means that VALUE1; is greater than VALUE2; with respect to some scale that they are both on. More precisely, there is some #$TotallyOrderedScalarIntervalType SCALE that both VALUE1; and VALUE2; are instances of and either (i) SCALE; is a specialization of #$NumericInterval (e.g. #$RealNumber) and the minimum (see #$minQuantValue) of VALUE1; is greater than the maximum (see #$maxQuantValue) of VALUE2; or (ii) (#$followingValueOnScale VALUE2 VALUE1 SCALE); holds. bd5880b2-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 An Integer that is greater than zero. An Integer that is less than zero. hasCardinalty relates a Group to an integer enumerating the number of direct component elements of which the group consists. Because an element of a Group may itself be a Group, the Cardinality does not indicate the number of things that ultimately are not Groups, only the number of things that are related by the 'hasComponentElement' relation. NOTE that AbstractString is included explicitly, not only as a subtype of Group, because zero-length (zero-cardinality, considered as though it were an ordered group) strings may exist but zero-cardinality Groups are not permitted. A 'QuantityOfMoney' is any amount of money in any currency. Every PluralThing is a Group consisting of at least two or more entities, considered as one entity, and is related to the component entities by the relation 'hasComponentElement' The name of subtypes of 'PluralThing' in COSMO may take the form of a plural of a count noun. But plurals of count nouns are also used to name 'CommodityProducts', so that usage is not a reliable indicator that a term represents a PluralThing. A 'PluralThing' is an Object, and a 'CommodityProduct' is a substance, so the two are disjoint concepts, in spite of the close relation. The 'CommodityProduct should only be used in the substance sense, and PluralThing for those things who individual members are the focus of representation. NOTE: in COSMO, Group is restricted to groupings of at least one entity, as in OpenCyc. In this manner PluralThing stays closer to the linguistic intuition of a plural. A more generic Group that is not a TemporalThing could be defined, but is left out at this point. NOTE: BFO has the notion of an 'ObjectAggregate' which is similar to a 'PluralThing'; but in BFO the requirements are more stringent than for COSMO 'Group', since a COSMO 'Group' can be composed of arbitarily defined components, whereas in BFO each 'Object' of the aggregate must be an object with perceptible boundaries. Since BFO 'Object' is disjoint from 'fiat object part' and from ObjectAggregate, we need to make 'ObjectAggregate' a subtype of 'PluralThing', and to specify that each component of an 'ObjectAggregate' is a 'WholeObject'. Points from an instance of Role or a RoleType to the Object or ObjectType that fills that Role. Each instance of Role will always have a start and end point, though they may not be known. NOTE that this relation and its inverse can be used for individuals or types; in the latter case, it means that every Role of a particular type has a role filler of a particualr type - but if this is expressed directly as a relation rather than a restriction, it merely serves as an instruction to the reasoner not to instantiate the filler. Inverse of 'hasRoleFiller' - points to a Role filled by some Object or ObjectType. Some AttributeValue specific to Organisms. This is very general. Each 'IntensiveAttributeValue' is an AttributeValue that may be qualitative or quantitative, and expresses an intensity of some AttributeType. This is very general. Certain IntensiveAttributeValues may take both verbal intensive values (high'. 'medium', 'low'. and numerical values 'the drug is only 25% effective at preventing cancer'. 'pertainsTo' relates an AttributeValue to some other type. This relation is used to relate AttributeValues that serve to represent adjectives to other types, so as to indicate that the word modified by the adjective is related to that other type in one of several direct ways. In dictionaries this relation is often expressed, in definitions of adjectives, by the phrase 'of or pertaining to'. In WordNet such adjectives are described as related to other words by the phrase 'pertains to'. For example, 'historical' pertains to 'history'. An EventAttributeValue is an AttributeValue that specifically characterizes Events. Each PertainingAttributeValue is an AttributeValue that is related to some other type by the relation 'pertainsTo'. The exact manner in which a 'PertainingAttributeValue' can be related to the object of the 'pertainsTo' relation can vary with the noun (often representing a type) that the adjective (represented by the PertainingAttributeValue) modifies. Thus an 'historical town' would be a town in which something of sufficient interest or significance occurred to justify the mention of the town in some history book; An American president will be some person who served as President of America (not just an American who was a President of some organization). The meanings of the individual 'pertaining' relations will vary with the word modified and the adjective modifying that word. . A transitive relation that allows the ordering of IntensiveAttributeValues, such as 'good' 'so-do' and 'Poor'. Any AttributeType specific to Organisms. 'DegreeOfIntensity' is an AttributeType whose values express some 'IntensiveAttributeValue'. This is a broad class of attributes, including those whose intensity varies gradually, as well as those for which discrete level have been identified. The sense of 'degree' meaning 'stage of development' is expressed by 'StageOfDevelopment'. The sense meaning 'grade', or level of quality is the subtype 'LevelOfQuality' Includes noun senses 1 and 2 of 'level' and sense 1 of 'degree' in WordNet: 1. (467) degree, grade, level - (a position on a scale of intensity or amount or quality; 'a moderate grade of intelligence'; 'a high level of care is required'; 'it is all a matter of degree') 2. (169) grade, level, tier - (a relative position or degree of value in a graded group; 'lumber of the highest grade') = level level level1n level2n degree degree degree1n A Quantitifier is some numerical or verbal value that specifies or restricts the numerical prefix for a QuantitativeAttributeValue. The simples arre numbers, suc as 3 in the distance measure {3 feet}. A quantifier can also be a range {2 to 4}, such has in{{2 to 4} feet}. A quantifier can also be a number with a variance {3 +- 1}, such has {{3 +- 1} feet}. A quantifier can be verbal, such as 'High', 'Medium' or 'Low' such as {High Intensity}. Quantifiers may have default variances. See: 'hasDefaultVariance' and 'ConfidenceInterval'. A quantifier that specifies that there is no measurable quantity of the indicated thing. Corresponds to noun sense 1 of 'nothing' in WordNet: 1. (146) nothing, nil, nix, nada, null, aught, cipher, cypher, goose egg, naught, zero, zilch, zip, zippo - (a quantity of no importance; 'it looked like nothing I had ever seen before'; 'reduced to nil all the work we had done'; 'we racked up a pathetic goose egg'; 'it was all for naught'; 'I didn't hear zilch about it') nothing nothing nothing1n A specialization of #$TwoOrHigherDimensionalThing and #$SpaceRegionLimit. This is the collection of all surfaces, tangible or intangible (see #$Surface-Physical and #$Surface-Intangible), of spatial things. Each instance of #$Surface-Generic is a spatial thing that has extent in at least two dimensions, and either has no thickness (i.e. is a purely two-dimensional object) or has an insignificant thickness compared to its length and width. (If it is a closed surface, e.g. an apple skin, then any significant subregion of it must have insignificant thickness compared to that subregion's length and width.) Thus a surface might be two- or three-dimensional; tangible or intangible; spatially connected or not; it might be flat, curved, folded, or crumpled. Other examples of surfaces are the skin of a basketball, the face-up side of a table top, and a particular face of an abstract cube. Other specializations of #$Surface-Generic are #$FlatSurface, #$Surface-Closed, and #$Surface-Open. A specialization of #$Surface-Generic (q.v.).This is the collection of open surfaces of (tangible or intangible) spatial objects. Each instance of #$Surface-Open has some boundary, such as an edge, perimeter, or hole. Examples include the top surface of a tabletop, the surface of a whiffle ball, a slightly cracked eggshell, and the skin of an apple with a bite taken from it. Non-examples are a basketball skin and an intact eggshell; cf. #$Surface-Closed. Note that 'hole' here is intended in its colloquial, human-scale sense, according to which (e.g.) a wiffle ball has holes but a baseball does not (even though at some fine-grained level the latter does have tiny holes). bd8cb302-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 GeographicalRegion_Cyc-includes_other_planets In COSMO, this type includes any region on or near the surface of a planet, including the region that contains its atmosphere. But the usage here differs from that in Cyc, and this category is not a physical object. For physical objects at the surface of a planet, see 'PlanetarySurfaceObject'. Cyc comment: A specialization of #$GeographicalThing and #$Surface-Physical. Each instance of #$GeographicalRegion is a tangible spatial region that includes some piece of the surface of a planet (usually #$PlanetEarth), and may be represented on a map of the planet. This includes purely topographical regions like mountains and underwater spaces, places defined by demographics (e.g., language areas) and territory otherwise demarcated (e.g. #$TimeZones). In dualist geopolitical contexts [see #$DualistGeopoliticalMt], instances of #$GeopoliticalEntity are also considered to be instances of #$GeographicalRegion. In all cases the region in question must contain some tangible component with which it is possible to make physical contact. The instances of #$GeographicalRegion contrast in this respect with the instances of #$GeographicalThing-Intangible, which are wholly intangible. Examples of #$GeographicalRegion include #$RockyMountainStates-USRegion, the #$ContinentOfAustralia, #$SinaiPeninsula, and - in dualist geopolitical contexts - #$YaleUniversity and #$CityOfPittsburghPA. Some important types of regions are represented by the sub-collections #$LanguageArea, #$TimeZone, #$PostalCodeRegion, #$EcologicalRegion, #$ConstructionSite, and - in dualist geopolitical contexts -- #$GeopoliticalEntity. No instances of #$GeographicalRegion are wholly indoor locations. GeographicalRegion[Cyc-includes_other_planets] Each GeographicalRegion is a connected one-,two- or three-dimensional region of space located on or near the surface of some astronomical body, not necessarily the Earth. For 3-dimensonal regions specifically on the Earth, use 'GeographicalArea'. It is understood that the regions defined are stationary with respect to some coordinate system in which the astronomical object itself is considered to be stationary. The astronomical object itself (most commonly the Earth) will of course be rotating and moving through space, and those motions are ignored when the relative locations defined by 'GeographicalRegion' are used. A GeographicalRegion will include some portion of the space above the solid material that defines the region, and below the surface; at this point (v 0.44) we have not precisely specified how much of the space above or below the surface is included. COSMO note: this Cyc category is reinterpreted as representing only spatial regions - points, areas, or volumes, on or near the surface of some planetary body (to clearly specify the Earth, use the subtype 'GeographicalArea'), but this does not represent any of the physical objects that might exist in that region. The discussion of 'tangible' in the Cyc documentation below suggests the inclusion of physical objects, but that is not the intent of this COSMO cateegory. Though this category does not include any physical objects, one may use 'GeographicalObject' to specify all of the objects in any GeographicalRegion, if desired. Cyc: A specialization of #$GeographicalThing and #$Surface-Physical. Each instance of #$GeographicalRegion is a tangible spatial region that includes some piece of the surface of a planet (usually #$PlanetEarth), and may be represented on a map of the planet. This includes purely topographical regions like mountains and underwater spaces, places defined by demographics (e.g., language areas) and territory otherwise demarcated (e.g. #$TimeZones). In dualist geopolitical contexts [see #$DualistGeopoliticalMt], instances of #$GeopoliticalEntity are also considered to be instances of #$GeographicalRegion. In all cases the region in question must contain some tangible component with which it is possible to make physical contact. The instances of #$GeographicalRegion contrast in this respect with the instances of #$GeographicalThing-Intangible, which are wholly intangible. Examples of #$GeographicalRegion include #$RockyMountainStates-USRegion, the #$ContinentOfAustralia, #$SinaiPeninsula, and - in dualist geopolitical contexts - #$YaleUniversity and #$CityOfPittsburghPA. Some important types of regions are represented by the sub-collections #$LanguageArea, #$TimeZone, #$PostalCodeRegion, #$EcologicalRegion, #$ConstructionSite, and - in dualist geopolitical contexts -- #$GeopoliticalEntity. No instances of #$GeographicalRegion are wholly indoor locations.. A #$Place or area with clustered or scattered buildings and a permanent human population, including cities, settlements, towns, and villages. It does not include #$Locales. NOTE that this is a subtype of PhysicalSpaceRegion and is disjoint with Agent. This is a synonym for 'Settlement': 'Settlement' is a very general concept of some area that has people residing in it, the people in it recognizing the area as having an identity distinct from that of other areas. It can be very small or very large. This is similar to the notion of "Populated Place" used in geographical Databases. OCM thesaurus: the topic of 'Settlements' is described: General statements covering several specific aspects of the physical configuration and material facilities of settlements ranging in size and complexity from a temporary camp to a great metropolis. To distinguish early-stage settlements from more established ones, the term 'Settlement' is reserved for this general concept, and 'EarlySettlement' for an early-stage settlement. acf243a4-24df-41d7-92f0-8a8fd5ad2507 A synonym for 'PopulatedPlace' used in Geographical Information systems. A Feature is an Object or Region within the ConvexHull of an Object. The Object may be abstract. existsInContext is most useful to relate fictional, nythical, or hypothetical characters to the contexts in which they appear. It can be used to refer to the 'Real World', but that may be in most cases the default context that needs no explicit reference. A general 'overlap' relation for both regions and objects, abstract and physical. In COSMO Objects are distinct from the regions that they occupy, but for the purpose of this relation, the 'overlap' can be viewed as the spatial overlap of the regions occupied by objects, or of that region with some other region. Regions that are in any way adjacent, with no space between other than a point, line, or infinitesimally thick plane, are considered as 'touching' for this relation. This relation is used to express the relation between a Feature of an Object and the Objec tht has that Feature. The Feature can be part of the Object (a protrusion) or a region within the ConvexHull of the Object (e.g. the hole in a doughnut). Such a region overlapsOrTouches the Object it is parasitic upon. In Cyc a similar 'overlaps' relation is labeled 'overlaps-RCC' (for regional Connection Calulus). But that is for regions only, and differs from this COSMO relation. Cyc: (#$overlaps-RCC REG1 REG2) means that REG1 overlaps REG2, i.e., REG1 and REG2 have a common part. The three immediate specialization of #$overlaps-RCC are #$partiallyOverlaps-RCC, #$partOf-RCC and #$partOf-Inverse-RCC. Note that this relation is a #$negationPreds of #$externallyConnectsWith-RCC, compare also with #$discreteFrom-RCC. bf636392-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 Every Group consists of one or more entities considered as one unit, and is related to the component entities by the relation 'hasComponentElement'. A Group is not an abstract or mathematical concept - every group derives its properties solely from the entities that are its component elements. Thus a group of solid objects would be a solid object, and the mass of that object would be equal to the sum of the masses of the component objects. It has *some* similarity to the 'mereological sum' of mereologists. However, a Group may have component elements of very diverse kinds - there is no restriction on the membership of a Group, though one element can only count once in the cardinality of the group. A Group is somewhat similar to a Cyc 'Group', but is not restricted to physical things, and has relations to its members named differently than in Cyc. NOTE: A Group that has one component element is identical to that single element; in this respect it is similar to the mereological notion of a 'mereological sum'. The only group that can have itself as a component element is the group of one element. This latter property is the peculiar characteristic of this concept of 'Group', in contrast to other aggregates except, as noted, for 'mereological sum'. This concept of 'Group' makes certain representations covenient. In some cases, we want to define a function that may return one or more elements, but if there is one element, we also want that single element to be identical to the single element, and not encapsulated in an enveloping element. Returning a Group will allow that behavior. Note that a relation on a Group that can be applied to individuals (i.e. is not specifically defined on the type 'Group' or a subtype thereof) will be interpreted as meaning that the relation applies to each member of the Group individually. Therefore to say {(Every Dog) has (four Legs)} is to specify that each instance of Dog has four legs. The same effect can often be accomplished by an OWL restriction on the type. Cyc Documentation for 'Group' (**NOTE*** some differences from COSMO 'Group'. In Cyc a Group must consist of Temporal Objects, but in COSMO it is more general. The Group membership relation also differs.) OPENCYC 1: MAY 23, 2002 A collection of temporal objects. Each instance of #$Group is a composite object made up of one or more individual objects or events. A group is related to each of its members by the predicate #$groupMembers (q.v.) [COSMO: 'hasComponentElement'] Note that instances of #$Group are _not_ collections. A group has temporal extent [COSMO: a Group may be abstract] and might have spatial location, while a collection is timeless and nonspatial. It is of course possible to define a collection parallel to any given group, so that the instances of the collection are exactly the group-members of that group; e.g. each toe on my left foot (and nothing else) is both an instance of the collection of my left toes and a member of the group of toes on my left foot. But that group (of my left toes) is a spatiotemporal thing while the correlated collection (of my left toes) is not. Similarly, if a certain flock of pigeons is considered as having a location, a spatial extent, and a time of existence, then the flock is being considered a _group_ and not a collection. Finally, unlike a collection, a group cannot be empty, but must have _at_least_one_ group-member. As a default, a group whose group-members all are instances of #$SomethingExisting is itself an instance of #$SomethingExisting, and a group whose group-members all are #$Events is itself an #$Event. Instances of #$Group include #$QueensGuard, #$ThreeWiseMen, #$SantasReindeer, and #$InternationalCommunity. Each 'TwoArgumentValue' is an AttributeValue that specifies the two argument values for an instance of a CompactedTernaryRelation. This is a mechanism to reresent ternary relations in the binary relation format of OWL.. Each instance of 'TwoArgumentValue' will have relations pointing to the two arguments that make up the ternary assertion that is represented. A pointer from a concept to another concept of which it is a synonym. This is a crude method to permit search in Protege for synonyms of terms in the class search window. In v0.3 these synonyms were confined to classes. For other synonyms, use 'hasSynonym'. wasCreatedBySoleAgent relates an Artifact (concrete or abstract) to the individual Agent who created it. The Agent may be a Group, but there will be only one value for this relation, and to fill that value means that one knows the identity of all of the agents who participated enough in the creation to be called creators. This is not necessarily the same as an autor of record for a textual work, where ghost writers may get no credit. This is the real creator. 'isCreatedByAgentType' relates an ObjectType (concrete or abstract) to the type of Agent who typically creates or is capable of creating such things. The Agent may be a Group, and there may be more than one value for this relation. isaPartOf is a very general 'part' relation applicable to spatial regions or objects in some space. This relation has no axioms associated with it because it is only an 'umbrella' relation that gathers together other relations having different meaning, so as to provide an anchor point for the ambiguous linguistic notion of 'part' It cannot be transitive, because it subsumes the relation of a member to the group, which is not transitive. But some of its subrelations are transitive. NOTE that to say that something is a part of something else - or inversely, that something has a part - can present issues of implementation and some nuances of interpretation. Regarding implementation, if one asserts that every object ?O of type ?T has a part of type ?P, then for each individual of the ?T type it follows that some part of type ?P must exist. Then the reasoner must be instructed what to do if there is no individual of type ?P that is specifically asserted to be a part of object ?O. One option is to refuse to accept data asserting exstence of object ?O because no part is instantiated. Another option is to automatically instantiate *every* implied part - this can be done in a FOL reasoner by 'Skolemization' - creating a Skolem function that returns the individual. One may want alternative options - to be able to assert a necessary part relation, but *not* to create a Skolem individual if the part itself is not also asserted. In interpretation, it will be necessary to decide whether, for a type ?T that has necessary parts, whether the parts must be in place for an instane of type ?T to exist. If a musical instrument is borken down into its parts in a carrying case, is there a musical instrument in the case, or doe the instrument only exist when it is assembed and functional? These issues are not decided in COSMO, but the 'part' relations can be asserted at the individual or type level, and the proper interpretation of such relations will need to be determined before an implementation can reason accurately with the knowledge in the ontology. NOTE: this and its subproperties are usually instance-level relations, but types are included because they are used in some of the subrelations. To express that some physical object type is *typically* (but not necessarily) a part of another physical object type, use the type-level relation, 'isTypicallyaPhysicalPartOf'. An example would be a limb of an animal, which can be severed, and when thus separated may still be properly called a animal's limb - but not normally connected. the inverse of 'isaPartOf', a very general relation applicable to spatial regions, events, or objects in some space. Each instance of String-Entity relation is an ObjectProperty that can be translated into a String type attribute when converting from an OWL ontology to a schema, UML model, or other representation that uses String datatypes to refer to property values that are best represented as first-class entities in an ontology. This OWL Property type is specifically designed to assist translation of ontologies into other formats. Each instance of 'dbMappedRelation' is a OWL Property that can be mapped to one or more columns in a database when using an OWL ontology to access conceptual information from one or more database tables. Each instance of 'CompactedTernaryRelation' is a OWL Property that could be represented by a ternary relation in an FOL format, but has been compacted to fit into the binary relation format of OWL. The range of these relations will be instances of a type that specifies the two arguments that are folded into a single argument to fit into an OWL relation. Each instance of 'ExistentialRelation' is a relation between types of entities, rather than between instances of entities; a relation is specified as being of the type 'ExistentialRelation' when the intended meaning is that every instance of the subject is related to *some* instance of the object. This meaning could also be expressed by an OWL restriction using 'someValuesFrom'; however, the OWL restriction will be interpeted logically as being an inconsistency if no instance satisfying that relation is present in the ontology for every instance of the subject. It may not be necessary or desirable to create instances of the object every time an instance of the subject of a relation is created - and yet, we will want the reasoner to know, when it needs to, that some instance of the object type must exist. This formalism is adopted to allow an explicit assertion within the ontology that certain instances are implied by others, but to allow the reasoner to ignore that information unless it is required. So relations between types that imply the existence of an instance of the object for every instance of the subject will be made instances of 'ExistentialRelation'. Use of such information will require an FOL reasoner, but COSMO is intended to represent all information in the OWL format, in such a way tat it can be converted to an FOL format for more detailed reasoning. Whether and how this represented information will be used will be up to the implementation. The task of the ontology is to represent that information, and this provides a means to do so without overburdening the reasoner. There will also be relations between types (as for example subclasses of PhysicalSubstance or of AttributeValue) for which there is no implication of the existence of instances of the object type. These relations will not be instances of 'ExistentialRelation'. Each instance of 'dbMappedDataRelation' is a OWL Property that can be mapped to some datatype column in a database when using an OWL ontology to access conceptual information from one or more database tables. consistsMostlyOfSubstance relates physical objects or physical object types that have a relatively homogeneous spatial distribution of component substances to the substance(s) which form the dominant composition. If the component substance does not form a larger weight fraction than any other substance, the relation 'hasConstituentSubstance' should be used instead. Thus a drinking glass will be composed of glass, a lake of water, a structural I-beam of steel. In Cyc the 'substances' (or stuffs) were represented as objects made of a particular substance. In COSMO we distinguish the object from its composition, and this relation specifies, where it makes sense to do so, what the substance composition of particular objects is. hasColor relates abstract symbols (abstract representations of things), substances, substance types, or individual objects to one or more colors that characterize the way that light is reflected from or passes through the object. For real-world objects, the color value will be a color region, which could be further restricted to a more specific color, down to a monochromatic color of specific saturation and intensity. The colors are represented as Types. A SolidObject is a PhysicalObject that retains its shape with less than 30% distortion in any one dimension when placed on a surface in air *or in water* in Earth's gravitational field. This means that reasonably solid but compressible gels qualify as SolidObjects. For objects that are less distortable than gels, use 'RigidObject'. NOTE that a SolidObject does not have to be rigid. All Organisms are SolidObjects, even jellyfish. To be solid, and object may distort, but cannot flow as a liquid or disperse as a gas. Eacj 'ObjectConsistingOfSubstance' is a PhysicalObject that is characterized, among other things, by the substance of which it consists. 'Even' as an attribute (adjective) is a broad term signifying alignment of comparable edges of two PhysicalObjects, or a relative smoothness of the surface of an object. The subtypes of this type give the more specific meanings. This corresponds to adjective sense 2 of 'even' in WordNet: 3. (2) even - (being level or straight or regular and without variation as e.g. in shape or texture; or being in the same plane or at the same height as something else (i.e. even with); 'an even application of varnish'; 'an even floor'; 'the road was not very even'; 'the picture is even with the window') COSMO note: In Cyc, this class has physical objects in it that are flat. For COSMO, this is redefined as an AttributeValue. NOTE that an Object can have some sourface roughness and still be 'Flat', such as a flat roof with gravel on it. This AttributeValue needs to be interpreted with respect to the scale of the object being described. Thus this is not the same as 'smooth'. Cyc comment: A flat surface is flat overall. It may have texture or may have relatively small subregions which are concave, convex, have holes all the way through etc.. Need not be horizontal. See #$SheetShaped for 'two-sided' or 'flat' objects such as boards, uncrumpled sheets of paper, or Compact Discs. 209bf3e4-74bf-11d6-8000-00a0c99cc5ae 'Horizontal' is an AttributeValue of SolidObjects that have at least one long dimension that is oriented parallel to the Earth's surface. This is an approximate attribute, and things can be more horizontal than others. The degrees of 'horizontalness' have not yet (v755 been specified.. ObjectWithAttribute is a container category to collect all Types of PhysicalObjects that are defined by some distinctive attribute, such as 'Collectible' (taken from the openCyc.. A GravitationallyBoundObject is an object that has a mass and density sufficiently large that it will (eventually) settle out from the Earth's atmosphere, in the absent of agitation or shear forces that keep it suspended. This Type is created to provide a more restricted Type of PhysicalObjects that will be the domain and range for relations of 'support' and 'on top of', excluding submicroscopic objects for which such relations make no sense. The subtype 'MacrosopicObject' and its subtypes will be those most commonly used with the 'support' relations. This type of Object need not be solid: portions of a liquid can be supported by surfaces and containers. A is a PhysicalObject that is visible and large enough to be perceived by human beings without the aid of a microscope or other aid to viewing small objects. It could be of any size, but will typically be used for objects no larger than the planet Earth. Larger objects will be 'LargeObject's or 'AstronomicalObject's. A FlatObject is a PhysicalObject that has at least one surface that is relatively Flat. COSMO note: In Cyc, this class was called 'Flat', which in COSMO is an attribute. Cyc comment: A flat surface is flat overall. It may have texture or may have relatively small subregions which are concave, convex, have holes all the way through etc.. Need not be horizontal. See #$SheetShaped for 'two-sided' or 'flat' objects such as boards, uncrumpled sheets of paper, or Compact Discs. 209bf3e4-74bf-11d6-8000-00a0c99cc5ae A GroundOrFloor is some solid relatively horizontal flat object on which an animal can move in multiple directions (as opposed to, e.g. the limb of a tree that restricts direction of motion). This is a broad category, including natural ground such as soil, a lawn, a beach, a large flat rock on which one can stand, etc.,as well as flat artifacts on which a person can stand and move to some extent, including the floors of a structure, even one as small as a tree house. This is included to allow description of movements and postures involving relations with the object one is standing on. NOTE that a ceiling is also Flat and Horizontal, and as of v955 the distinction has not yet been axiomatized. A DynamicObject is a PhysicalObject for which the internal movement of the whole or some part is an essential characteristic of its identity. A tornado, a whirlpool, or a dust devil are examples. This does not include microscopic movements such as biological processes, therefore living things are not instances. NOTE that simple linear moving things like currents are represented as FunctionalProcesses, even though they have some of the character of a DynamicObject. A current of water is not an instance of DynamicObject. This distinction is not entirely arbitrary; a linear current has a flow rate as one of its salient characteristics, and that is representd as a time derivative, which is one salient characteristic of a FunctionalProcess. A DynamicObject will exhibit salient characteristics beyond a simple linear flow, as in the case of a tornado which moves up, down, and sideways as well as in a circle. Dry is an attribute of objects and substances that do not lose enough liquid by vaporization on standing in an open space so as to cause a significant change in their properties. This is an Attribute that can be used to reason about the likely stability of an Object or substance on standing in the open.. A quality of substances or objects that have water either interspersed within it or on the surface. A DryObject is a SolidObject that does not have a significant content of a liquid that may volatilize so as to significantly change the weight (by more than 10%) or rigidity or functionality after standing in an open space for some time. The category is determined by the moisture contnet considered as such at the time it was created. RigidObjects that have some surface mosture are still DryObjects. This type is created to allow a reasoner to infer some commonsense information about the consequences of aging of an object. The disjoint alternative is 'MoistObject', which includes objects such as animals and some foods, which change substantially when left in a place where the water content can evaporate without replacement. NOTE that this type applies to types that were dry when they were created: an Organism is a MoiopstObject, but when it reaches the stage where it is a dry skeleton, it becomes a physically dry object, but is still an instance of MoistObject. This type represents a property that is relevant to stability, not necessarily representing the physical character throughout a lifetime. A MoistObject is a SolidObject that has a significant content of a liquid that may volatilize so as to significantly change the weight (by more than 10%) or rigidity or functionality after standing in an open space for some time. This criterion is applied in reference to the state of the object at the time it was created. A MoistObject that has dried out may still be an instance of the type MoistObject. This type represents a property that is relevant to stability, not necessarily representing the physical character throughout a lifetime. This type is created to allow a reasoner to infer some commonsense information about the consequences of aging of an object. The disjoint alternative is 'DryObject', which includes all RigidObjects and objects such as sheets of metal or cloth, which are more stable to standing in an open space than a MoistObject would be. Examples of moist objects would be an organism, fresh bread or cake, or . An AgentiveObject is a PhysicalObject that can cause changes to other objects. This class contains subclasses that have the capacity to act as agents, i.e. to cause changes in the real world; but this general class of agents do not have to have intentions or form plans.. People are the Agents that are typically of greatest interest. But Tornadoes, hurricanes, tsunamis, volcanoes, etc. can behave a agents in that they cause external events due to their internal processes. All of these agentic objects are included in this category, but Organizations, which are classified as MentalObjects in this ontology, are in a separate agentive category. Life Form is very general category of organic objects that can reproduce themselves in a manner resembling the reproduction of animals and plants, and includes intact organisms, viruses, and prions. A part of an organism is not a life form in itself. NOTE that artificial life forms that are not organic (e.g. robots) are not included in this category. NOTE also that 'LifeForm' is not disjoint with 'InanimateThing' though 'Organism' is. This is because some primitive life forms, like some viruses, can occur in crystalline form (while still being viable), and we have categorized crystals as inanimate. The border between living and non-living at the subcellular level is fuzzy, and in COSMO (rev639) we are still trying to find the proper distinctions. COSMO note: all PhysicalObjects are non-trivially continuous only with respect to some level of granularity. Cyc: A specialization of #$SpatialThing. For every instance REGION of #$SpatiallyContinuousThing, any two points it subsumes are connected by some path it also subsumes. Positive exemplars include a drinking glass, a haystack, a spiderweb, or a region of space in the shape of any of these things. If the glass is broken and its pieces no longer touch each other, it is not a #$SpatiallyContinuousThing. Some borderline exemplars depend on granularity. At a macroscopic level of granularity, a dense cloud of smoke is effectively continuous. On the microscopic level, it is composed of independent particles that do not touch each other. 9ae4ab12-8221-41d7-9022-96b38c86ffc1 A specialization of #$InanimateThing-Natural. Each instance of #$Mineral is a piece of homogeneous inorganic physical substance that has a crystalline structure. Specializations of #$Mineral include the collections #$Diamond, #$Turquoise-Gem, #$Jade-Gem, and #$Corundum. c1008900-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 COSMO note: In COSMO, this is a substance, not an object. There are some inorganic materials, such as carbon dioxide and carbon tetrachloride, that contain carbon. So carbon content is not the only criterion to distinguish organic from inorganic substances. Cyc: A specialization of #$InanimateThing. Each instance of #$InorganicMaterial is a tangible thing wholly composed of one or more types of inorganic molecule. Instances of #$InorganicMaterial usually didn't originate as parts or products of living things. Notable specializations of #$InorganicMaterial include #$Mineral, #$Metal, and #$Glass. bd590a05-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A PhysicalSubstance that is in a solid and usually crystalline form, and inorganic (possibly except for some small amount of included organic material), In COSMO this is a Substance, not an Object, whereas the Cyc term is an Object. This is the solid substance: when molten it is not considered 'Mineral' in COSMO. Cyc: A specialization of #$InanimateThing-Natural. Each instance of #$Mineral is a piece of homogeneous inorganic physical substance that has a crystalline structure. Specializations of #$Mineral include the collections #$Diamond, #$Turquoise-Gem, #$Jade-Gem, and #$Corundum. SUMO: Any of various naturally occurring homogeneous substances (such as stone, coal, salt, sulfur, sand, petroleum), or synthetic substances having the chemical composition and crystalline form and properties of a naturally occurring mineral. c1008900-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 An important specialization of #$InanimateThing. Each instance of #$ExanimateThing is an individual that is typically regarded as truly inanimate, or non-agentive in the sense that it is utterly incapable of any subjective or mental experience. c0d2c2fb-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 COSMO note: in COSMO, a SubatomicParticle is not an instance of this type. This type partly overlaps with 'Particle' - the distinction is not resolved as of v0.54. This should be used for objects down to atom-sized. Cyc: A specialization of #$PartiallyTangible. Each instance of #$MicroscopicScaleObject is a partially tangible object which is so small that human beings cannot perceive it, except (perhaps) with the use of special devices such as #$Microscopes or #$ElectronMicroscopes. Specializations of #$MicroscopicScaleObject include #$Molecule, #$Atom, #$SubAtomicParticle, #$Chloroplast, and #$Mitochondrion. bd5891ac-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A specialization of #$MicroscopicScaleObject. Each instance of #$ChemicalObject is an object whose behavior is typically described in terms of its outer cloud of #$Electrons. Specializations of #$ChemicalObject include the collections #$Atom, #$Molecule, and #$Ion. bd58916a-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A specialization of #$ChemicalObject. Each instance of #$Atom is a microscopic-scale object with exactly one atomic nucleus (see #$AtomicNucleus) and some number of electrons (see #$Electron). A typical instance of #$Atom has no net charge, i.e., it has as many instances of #$Electron as it does of #$Proton. For the collection of atoms that do have non-zero charges, see #$MonoatomicIon. bd5891ef-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A substance which is a chemical element, for which the unit is an atom; each atom of a ChemicalElement has the same number of protons in its nucleus. In Cyc called 'ElementStuff' Cyc: An instance of #$TangibleStuffCompositionType and a specialization of #$InanimateThing. Each instance of #$ElementStuff is a piece of tangible stuff, composed of a quantity of atoms, all of which are of the same chemical element. That is, every atom in a given piece of #$ElementStuff has the same number of protons in its atomic nucleus. For example, all pieces of carbon (i.e. all instances of #$Carbon) are instances of #$ElementStuff. On the other hand, instances of #$Water, because they are all constituted of both #$Hydrogen and #$Oxygen atoms, do not belong to the collection #$ElementStuff. bd5908b9-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 COSMO note: In Cyc, where there was no taxonomic distinction between substances and objects, this metatype was used to label both substances (in some particular form) and objects. In COSMO, this is used as a parent class for certain substances having particular forms. These categories can serve as ?X in the phrase 'given as an ?X' in pharmacy descriptions. Cyc comment: Drug products organized according to their form when they are given as doses. c10ae97e-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 Each class of a ColorAttribute forms a region with more specific classes of ColorAttribute forming subregions.. hasProtonCount relates a chemical element to the number of protons in each atomic nucleus of that element. This is very specifically a chemistry/physics concept. NOTE that the domain is ElementType because elements are represented as types (classes), not instances. This representation permits element isotopes to be subtypes of each element. isNearTo specifies that some GenericLocation (an Object or a Region) is 'near' to another, but (usually) not touching the other. 'near' is relative to the size of the things being related. To be 'near' another region or object, the distance from one Object or Region to the other must be within two diameters of the larger object or region. NOTE that 'isSupportedBy' is a subproperty of 'isNearTo'. If two objects are touching, that can be represented as a 'TouchingState'. In SUMO treated as an attribute: SUMO: (Near) The relation of common sense adjacency. Note that, if an object is Near another object, then the objects are not connected.. This is the most generic generic 'location' relation, and differs from its subProperty 'isLocatedAt' only in that to be 'located at or on' includes the possibility that some pile of objects may be located in some open container and extend beyond the top of the container, but will move when that container moves because it is held to the container by the force of gravity or by some topological constraint. The subproperty 'isLocatedAt' means that the thing located is wholly located within the spatial region coextensive with the ConvexHull of the thing or place where it is located. Thus a pile of coal in an open railway coal car can be said to be 'contained' in the coal car even though it may extend above the top of the coal car; it will go wherever the coal car goes, as long as it satisfies this relation. Likewise, flowers in a vase are located 'at or on' the vase, though they typically extend beyond the top of the vase, and the top of the flowers may even be above the vase by more than the height of the vase. The 'isContainedIn' relation is a subproperty of this relation; therefore if {?x isContainedIn ?Obj} then {?x isLocatedAtOrOn ?Obj}. NOTE, however that 'isSupportedBy' is not a subtype of 'isLocatedAtOrOn' because the supporting object may be flat and extensive, and the supported object may extend well above the surface of the supporting object.. A general 'location' relation for objects and regions and substances (but not for Events - use 'occurredAt'). The location can be a region of space (connected or disconnected) or an object (physical or abstract). Being 'located' at an Object means being located within the ConvexHull of the Object; therefore a Hole in an Object, which contains no part of the Object 'isLocatedAt' that Object. Also, recall that a GeographicalRegion includes some space above the surface of that region, so it is possible that ?obj isLocateAt a GeographicalRegion even if it is in the air not far above the surface of that region. If a pile of objects or a large object is 'contained' in an open-top container, and extends above the top of that container, it cannot be said to be 'located at' that container, in this sense. For that case, use 'isContainedIn' or its parent 'isLocatedAtOrOn'. The value (object) of this relation answers the question 'where is it?' (for the subject) in some sense. Somewhat non-intuitively, this relation can be used to specify that some set of beliefs (a BeliefSystem) is held by one or more people, since the BeliefSystem is considered an InformationStore that can have a physical location; that is, beliefs are located in the heads of people, or of Groups of people. However, NOTE that specific instances of a disease cannot be 'located' in people by this relation, because a Disease is considered as an Event. Use 'occurredAt' for relating specific instances of Disease to particular people or groups of people. NOTE that when it is asserted that a 'Substance' isLocatedAt some place, that is a stand-in for the more logically meaningful assertion that some unspecified quantity of a Substance is located at that place. NOTE that this is an instance-level relation and describes where an object is actually located at some particular time. For describing where objects typically are located (e.g. parts of the body), use 'isNormallyLocatedAt', a relation that can take a individual Object or an ObjectType as the subject NOTE: 'isLocatedAt' may be used with an instance of 'TimeAndPlace' (a four-dimensional portion of space-time) in the object position of the relation, to specify the location of some thing (but not Events) over some interval of time, using a binary relation. Although this relation is transitive, there are permitted range instances that cannot bw located at some permitted domain instances: for example, a 'TimeAndPlace' will never be locatedAt an Object or region that is not itself Four-dimensional, unless the domain instance is nominally a TimeAndPlace, but with the Time dimension of zero length, in which case the domain instance is effectively three-dimensional. But in general, if the subject is a TimeAndPlace, the Object should also be a TimeAndPlace, not a Region or Object. To avoid unintended errors, this restriction should be encoded as a constraint. NOTE: this relation is close in meaning to that of the OBO_REL relation 'located_in' (http://www.obofoundry.org/ro/#OBO_REL:located_in). In OBO some relations may also be used on Types to create an implicit restriction, but such usage is not part of COSMO, and that usage would need to be represented as a rule. OBO_REL: located_in (see http://www.obofoundry.org/ro/) OBO comments for located_in: Location as a relation between instances: The primitive instance-level relation c located_in r at t reflects the fact that each continuant is at any given time associated with exactly one spatial region, namely its exact location. Following we can use this relation to define a further instance-level location relation - not between a continuant and the region which it exactly occupies, but rather between one continuant and another. c is located in c1, in this sense, whenever the spatial region occupied by c is part_of the spatial region occupied by c1. Note that this relation comprehends both the relation of exact location between one continuant and another which obtains when r and r1 are identical (for example, when a portion of fluid exactly fills a cavity), as well as those sorts of inexact location relations which obtain, for example, between brain and head or between ovum and uterus COSMO: a Capability is an attribute of some physical object or PhysicalSubstance that specifies some role that that object or substance may play in events or processes. This is a very broad concept, including participation in actions and passive processes. In general, it is not necessary or desirable to list all the roles that an object may play, as in many cases those roles may be very numerous. This 'attribute' would be used rather to indicate the more salient roles that an object can play. For example, a Person who has a particular talent or skill could have that skill specified (e.g. 'AbilityToDanceTheTango'); a company that can make a particular product would have that capability specified (e.g. 'AbilityToManufactureWidgets'). For people, Capabilities to do specific actions often come in a wide range of degrees of expertise. Another important 'Capability' is categorized under the subtype 'Tendency', which specifies the way that an object is likely to behave; the tendency of non-living organic material to decompose when not frozen is an example of such a tendency. See 'Tendency' for additional discussion of that subtype. NOTE that to have a Capability does not mean that it is possible for the agent to perform that action at any time, or even that the agent has performed that action. There may be motivational inhibitions or blocking conditions that prevent an agent from exercising a Capability at any given time and place. Each CapabilityType represents the ability to serve in some Role in some type of Action or Event. The RoleType and ActionType are specified by the relations 'isAbilityToServeInRole' and 'isAbilityToServeInActionType', repsectively. For any given Capability Type, the Roles and ActionTypes specified are interpreted to mean that the entity having that capability can serve in any of those Roles, in any of those Actions. **But** is is understood that for any given situation, there may be circumstances that prevent the Agent or Object from serving in that Role. The Roles may be as Agent, to initiate evens, or as Instrument, to facilitate the actions of an Agent. @ToDO: do **computer programs** have Capabilities or only the computer that runs the program? If the program itself has capability, then this attribute would not be a property only of PhysicalObjects. How to specify that a ComputerProgram enables a computer to do things? Not resolved as of v0.48. Similar to a learned capability? Is a ComputerProgram a form of learning - at least when installed? To dissect individual capabilities, it is useful to create instances of the subtypes of this Type (InstrumentCapability or AgentCapability), and each of those instances should specify exactly what type of Action the role (Agent or Instrument) is effective in. A Capability will usually be labeled with an infinitive verbal form, with or without an object, such as 'ToDance' or 'ToEnableTelecommunication'. Each subtype of Capability is a role in some type of action that some Object can perform or assist in performing. One subtype of this is 'Function', specifically a type of action for which an object has been designed, either by some IntelligentAgent or by Evolution. Capabilities generally have more than one degree - as in 'Intelligence'. In CYC, classes representing types of capability are signaled by making them instances of a metaclass of 'capabilities'. COSMO avoids metaclasses except where necessary to serve as the type restriction on a relation's argument. Thus 'CapabilityType' is defined for that purpose. Instead of asserting a Capability on an Object, where the Role and ActionType are referenced by the CapabilityType, it is also possible oin COSMO to directly specify that an Object can serve as an Agent or Instrument by use of relations on instances or Types of Objects: canServeAsAgentInActionType canServeAsInstrumentInActionType . . . but the rules relating the logical implications of these assertions and those of asserting a CapabilityType are not representable in a simple OWL format. Extensions may use SWRL for this. The relation between a 'Capability' and the actual instance of physical action is 'wasRealizedByAction'. @ToDo: more elaboration needed (v0.45). Higher-arity relations would be useful here: {{?x hasCapability ?y} impliesThat {?x canPerformRole ?ROLE inEventType ?EVENTTYPE}} NOTE the triangular relation: an Artifact hasDesignFunction which is a CapabilityType, A Capability or Function wasRealizedByAction which is an *instance* of an Event or Action Type. see also 'ableToAffect' Cyc NOTE: Cyc has several higher-arity relations that relate an object or person to their ability or intended function. Similar relations may be defined when COSMO is convertable to FOL ******** QuaternaryPredicate rdf:ID='actsInCapacity'> rdfs:comment The predicate #$actsInCapacity indicates the capacity in which an agent participates in certain kinds of actions. (#$actsInCapacity AGENT ROLE SCRIPT-TYPE CAP) means that the agent AGENT plays the role ROLE in instances of SCRIPT-TYPE, and s/he does that role in the capacity CAP. CAP is a #$CapacityAttribute (q.v.) which describes the AGENT's mode of participation-e.g., as a job, hobby, main function, support function, etc. Contrast three cases of acts of #$GreetingSomeone, when #$performedBy: (1) instances of #$Receptionist, in their #$JobCapacity and as their #$MainFunction; (2) instances of #$FlightAttendant, in their #$JobCapacity but as a #$SupportFunction; and (3) instances of #$TrainEngineer, in a #$HobbyCapacity (though they do it while working, it's not part of their job) /QuaternaryPredicate TernaryPredicate rdf:ID='actsInCapacity-IntendedFunction' rdfs:comment: An instance of #$CapacityPredicate (#$actsInCapacity-IntendedFunction AGENT ROLE EVENT-TYPE) holds just in case when AGENT is performing ROLE in events of type EVENT-TYPE the agent is performing the event as one of its intended functions. For instance, if a stock broker is the buyer of stocks in some #$StockTrading, then (#$actsInCapacity-IntendedFunction Bob-TheStockBroker #$buyer #$StockTrading) holds. /TernaryPredicate TernaryPredicate rdf:ID='actsInCapacity-JobCapacity' rdfs:comment(#$actsInCapacity-JobCapacity AGT ROLE EVT-TYPE) holds just in case AGT's ROLE in acts of EVT-TYPE is in the capacity of a job. /TernaryPredicate ****************** A DesignFunction is the ability to do something or to enable doing something by acting as an instrument. This notion encompasses two different roles in an Event, and is therefore an aggregate concept that is high-level in COSMO. Its subtypes will be Events which may be Actions (doing something) or merely non-active participations (being an instrument). This is the function that an artifact is designed to perform, when it is designed to perform a function, or the function that an evolved part of an organism is designed to perform, by evolution. SituationRole is a compound Type representing both a Situation and a Role. This category was created specifically to allow an inherently Ternary relation (the Cyc intendedPrimaryFunction) to be represented as binary. it will include a Situation and a Role which specifies the function of an Object in that Situation. ToDO - to be useful, the structure of this Type needs elaboration. See also intendedPrimaryFunction - should be merged?? This specifies the Action part of SituationRole, where the Situation is an Action. An axiom should relate them. hasDesignFunction relates a PhysicalObject or Substance (usually an artifact) or a System (i.e. something created for a purpose, which may be a natural biological System) to the action(s) that it is intended to perform, or can help perform. This relation answers the questions 'what is it good for?' or 'What does it do?'. Individual PhysicalObjects that are not artifacts are not included inb the domain of this relation. For natural objects that have a function (e.g. biological), only thtype of object, not the individual oject, can serve as the subjet of this relation. Note that this is close to but not identical to the relation 'enablesOrAssists' for resources. The distinction is threefold: (1) resources do not have to be artifacts; (2) each artifact is classified by its design (intended) function, but it may actually not be useful for that purpose; (3) an Artifact may enable or assist actions that it was not designed to be used for. ***************** CAUTION ********************************* **NOTE** This relation points to an ActionType or EventType. There are instances of ActionType that are subtypes of Action, but also there are Types that are subtypes of 'DesignFunction' which are also instances of ActionType, but these latter types are **note** subtypes of Event, rather subtypes of 'AttributeType'. This is a very unusual use of a relation to point to arguments of very different inherent type. The 'Functions' that are pointed to by this relation may in turn be related to actual instances of Event by the relation 'wasRealizedByAction' (which see), There is thus a triangular relation between Functional objects, the Functional capabilities (attributes) they have, and the actual Actions that may be carried out or assisted by those Objects. These relations Permitting the ontologist to point either directly to Actions, or to Attributes that point to actions, provides some flexibility. it should be underestood and used with care. ***************** CAUTION ********************************* Many artifacts will be related to actions by both relations. If not for caveat (2), 'hasDesignFunction' would be a subrelation of 'enablesOrAssists'. Another difference is that the design function of artifacts will in general be more specific than the actions enabled by resources. A Group consisting exclusively of PhysicalObjects. One may consider the collection of disjoint parts of a physical object as a Group, but in doing so one must ignore the relations among the objects, so the ObjectGroup consisting of the parts of a connected PhysicalObject is not identical to the whole object itself. In SUMO, this is called a 'Collection'. NO identical Cyc class seems to be defined. SUMO: Collections have members like Classes, but, unlike Classes, they have a position in space-time and members can be added and subtracted without thereby changing the identity of the Collection. Some examples are toolkits, football teams, and flocks of sheep. containsObjects is a specialization of 'contains' that points to an ObjectGroup that is contained in some aggregate entity or region. This relation allows the definition of some Group of PhysicalObjects and relating it to another entity where that group is 'contained' in some sense, without being part of the containing thing. A System can contain other Systems (which contain objects), so the range includes System A System consist of a group of two or more physical objects that are designed (by people or evolution) to work together to perform some function, plus the AttributeValues attached to those objects, and the relations among those objects - the attributes and relations are component elements of the Group, thus distinguishing a System from a simple group of Objects. There is therefore some significant relation between any Object in a System and some other Object in the System. The System is an aggregate consisting not only of the Objects, but also of the relations between them. This is the basic Entity that participates in Situations. The Attributes of the System as a whole are not component elements of the Group that comprise the system. A PersistentState of a System may include any subset of the Group of Attributes and Relations that are part of the System, and possibly some relations of the System as a whole to its external environment (e.g. orientation). NOTE: In Cyc something as simple as a shield or TurtleShell can qualify as a 'System' so the requirement for two objects may need to be taken liberally: a shield needs a handle to function, so the handle and plate of the shield can qualify as the two objects. Usually a System has several distinct Objects that interact in some way beyond merely being attached to each other. @@ToDo: Although this generic notion of System is not a PhysicalObject, it can have PhysicalObjects as subypes and instances. Representing a particular PhysicalObject or type of Object as a System is to assert a view of the PhysicalObject as something functional, and to provide a formal mechanism for discussing the structure and states of the System. The restriction that requires specifying an 'ObjectGroup' (or GroupType) will force the ontologist to specify at least some of the components of a System - the ObjectGroup specified should but does not have to include all of the Objects that characterize the System; therefore one may specify that an Object is a System but not be required to describe all of the component objects, just some of them. The view of a PhysicalObject as a System may at first seem to be a contradiciton: how can something be a GroupOfObjects and also be a System, which is a Group containing the same Objects, plus other things -(Attributes and Relations). This is not a Contradiction, precisely because an Object that is viewed as a System is not merely a GroupOfObjects - the view as a System describes the Object as a whole, whereas a View of its component parts is only a partial view of the Object. As of v0.52 this inclusion of different views of a complex object does not appear to be logically incoherent, and it does not appear that these alternate views will cause any problems. This is in a way reminiscent of Cyc's CompositeTangibleAndIntangible category, but judiciously used. Possibly the relations should be considered not as a part of the System, but an attribute, and that could avoid any logical problems.For later. Because a System is more than just the Objects it contains (it includes the relations), it is not represented as an ObjectGroup, but is related to the Objects it contains by the 'containsObjects' relation. Formally, the relations among the objects are part of the system but at this point it is not clear that attempting to represent those relations generically will be useful. Perhaps that will be useful at a future point. Note that a System, whether artifactual or natural, must have a DesignFunction. If the System is broken, diseased, or malfunctioning it may not be able to perform that function, but will still retain its identity as a System because the identity arises from the purpose (human or evolutionary) for which the System was created. 'isInsideOf' is a specialization of 'isLocatedAt' specifying that the subject is located within the Region defined by the outer limits of the containing Object or Region. This includes the notions of being a physical part of something, and being contained inside a container, as well as being within some spatial reagion. Those individual senses are subrelations of this relation. This relation also includes the sense of one substance being contained in another; even though that sense is already represented by 'hasComponentSubstance', the notion of 'inside' can include the notion of being part of a mixture, so it is included here as a way to relate these general notions. inside inside inside2adv 'isContainedIn' is the inverse of 'contains' and expresses a very general notion of some physical entity being 'contained' in some way in something else. This does not apply to abstract entities - see 'isContainedInSymbolicObject'. Although this relation implies that the contained thing 'isLocatedAtOrOn' the containing thing, this cannot be a subproperrty because substances are included in this relation. This generic location relation only specifies that the thing contained is somewhere either (1) within the convex hull of the containing thing, or (2) piled on or resting in an open-top container, being held in place by the force of gravity. Things that are contained in a container must move in synchronization with the container when the container is moved. Thus a flower in a vase, that extends above the top of the vase, 'isContainedIn' the vase. NOTE: the case of something that is partly in an object, extending beyond the limits of the object, but held to the object by some topological constraint is not included in this relation. That relation would be subsumed by 'isConnectedTo'. inside inside inside2adv contains is a very general relation that specifies that some PhysicalObject or PhysicalSubstance.is contained, in some way, in the subject entity. The subject entity does not have to be a Container. For the 'containment' relation between AbstractSymbolicObject's (texts, documents, strings) use 'containsSymbolicObject' or its inverse 'isContainedInSymbolicObject'. @ToDo: needs review for relationship to substance containment (substances may not be needed here). This may be too hetereogeneous. NOTE that a Region of space can also 'contain' something. NOTE that this differs from 'isLocatedAt' in that the containment relation requires that the thing contained is not a part of the containing thing. Thus one PhysicalObject can contain another PhysicalObject only if the containing PhysicalObject has a cavity of some kind. This restriction does not hold for the general 'isLocatedAt' relation. However, 'contains' does not include Events as either subject or object. For Events, use 'occurredAt'. As a generic 'contains' relation, this relation will also include the 'containment' of Substances by PhysicalObjects. The relation on Substances is more properly handled by the specific substance relations 'hasConstituentSubstance' and 'containsSubstance' This 'contains' relation is more generic, to accommodate the ambiguous linguistic 'contains' assertion, to provide a direct conceptual definition of that notion. OBO_REL: 'contains' is similar to this relation, but has some differences OBO documentation for OBO rel 'contained_in': OBO Definition: C contained_in C' if and only if: given any instance c that instantiates C at a time t, there is some c' such that: c' instantiates C' at time t and c located_in c' at t, and it is not the case that c *overlaps* c' at t. (c' is a conduit or cavity.) OBO Comments: Containment obtains in each case between material and immaterial continuants, for instance: lung contained_in thoracic cavity; bladder contained_in pelvic cavity. Hence containment is not a transitive relation. If c part_of c1 at t then we have also, by our definition and by the axioms of mereology applied to spatial regions, c located_in c1 at t. Thus, many examples of instance-level location relations for continuants are in fact cases of instance-level parthood. For material continuants location and parthood coincide. Containment is location not involving parthood, and arises only where some immaterial continuant is involved. To understand this relation, we first define overlap for continuants as follows: c1 overlap c2 at t =def for some c, c part_of c1 at t and c part_of c2 at t. The containment relation on the instance level can then be defined (see definition above) hasConstituentSubstance relates physical objects or regions to the substance(s) which form some part of the composition of the object or region. The component substance pointed to in this relation does not have to be the main component, and the object does not have to have a uniform distribution of substance types. If the component substance does form a larger weight fraction than any other substance, the relation 'consistsMostlyOfSubstance' should be used instead. One could say that a {shovel hasConstituentSubstance Steel}, even if the handle is wooden. We can use a relation which also specifies the actual weight fraction of each substance, but such a relation would be ternary, and cannot be directly supported as an OWL 'property'. NOTE that In Cyc the 'substances' (or stuffs) were represented as objects made of a particular substance. In COSMO we distinguish the object from its composition, and this relation specifies, where it makes sense to do so, what the substance compostion of particular objects is. NOTE that this relation is a subProperty of the generic 'hasPart' relation. The 'hasPart' relation has no implications, and is used only as an umbrella to collect all the 'part' relations that may ber used in language. The notion of a substance being a 'part' of an object may be the least common use of 'part', but it is found, and this subproperty relation allows it to be used in this ontology. The inverse of 'hasConstituentSubstance'. The element with six protons in each nucleus. 6 The element with eight protons in each nucleus. 8 A Gas or a LiquidSubstance. Each subclass of LiquidSubstance labels a PhysicalSubstance which is liquid at normal temperatures and pressures. This category has been set as identical to the Cyc 'Liquid-StateOfMatter', though the original Cyc category is a physical object. This redefinition was done as part of the disentanglement of Cyc substances and objects. The Cyc category definition does not apply to this Type,and is closer to the COSMO 'LiquidObject'. The Cyc category was reinterpreted as a substance because it was used in Cyc predominantly as a parent class for what in COSMO are considered as substances. Water, gasoline, and vodka are examples. Although most substances are classified mainly by their composition, and may be solids or liquids (and sometimes gases) depending on temperature, there are some categories of substances that are conceptually in one state; ice is an example - it must be solid. A 'BathOil' must be a liquid. A LiquidSubstance is a PhysicalSubstance that must be liquid, at normal temperature and pressure. Any PhysicalSubstance in the Gaseous form, at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. A quantity of gas does not have a defined volume, but will expand to become uniformly distributed throughout its container. NOTE that a substance that happens to be gaseous at some elevated temperature is **not** necessarily a subtype of 'Gas'; likewise, a quantity of cooled or compressed gas that has become liquid due to cooling or compression can still be composed of a subtype of 'Gas' - for example Liquified Natural Gas. To classify a quantity of matter that is in the gaseous form, use 'GaseousObject'. This is equivalent to saying that it has the property of being 'gaseous' - but that property is not yet (v 0.45) defined in COSMO. At low enough temperature, all substances condense to a liquid or solid. A ChemicallyDefinedSubstance is a PhysicalSubstance that is defined by its chemical composition. The specialized types will have a relatively well-defined composition, though the higher level catagories may have significant variation in the exact chemical composition, such as 'Rubber' or 'Alloy'. Substances that are commonly thnought of as relatively defined, even though they are mixtures such as Ivory and gemstone substances, are also subtypes of this Type. In Cyc labeled 'TangibleStuffCompositionType'. Cyc: A collection of collections and a specialization of #$ExistingStuffType. Instances are subcollections of #$PartiallyTangible whose membership is based only on the physical and/or chemical composition of their instances. #$TangibleStuffCompositionType does not have as instances collections whose instances are determined _solely_ by the physical state they are in - for that, see #$TangibleStuffStateType. However, many substances that chemically break down before melting (e.g. #$FattyTissue) _are_ included in this collection, even though they exist solely in one physical state. The collection #$Water is an instance of #$TangibleStuffCompositionType, as instances of #$Water are all pieces of substance with the chemical composition H20. On the other hand , the collection of all pieces of ice (i.e. (#$SolidFn #$Water)) is not a #$TangibleStuffCompositionType, because membership in that collection depends on the substance's composition _and_ on its physical state. #$TalcumPowder is not an instance of this collection because a fused mass of the substance would no longer be powder, but would still be of the same #$TangibleStuffCompositionType. Further instances of #$TangibleStuffCompositionType are #$Nylon, #$GasolineFuel, #$FattyTissue, #$Nitrogen, and #$Glass. An important specialization of this collection is #$ChemicalSubstanceType - those substance types defined solely by their chemical formulae. bd58864a-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 hasChemicalComposition specifies the proportion of elements in a ChemicallyDefinedSubstance. The range is an AbstractString, but the string is restricted in that the alphabetical parts must be ligitimate chemical symbols for elements. This relation includes not only ChemicalFormulas, which specify the number of atoms in each molecule (or balanced ion group for ionic materials), but also proportions of atoms in organic substances such as biopolymers, where the numbers behind each element may be fractional, representing an average over several closely related molecules or an average in a large molecule. However, percent compositions, specified as percentages, cannot be represented using this relation. hasChemicalFormula specifies the number of atoms in each unit (molecule or repeating balanced ion group) of each element in a ChemicallyDefinedSubstance that is not considered as a mixture of substances. The range is an AbstractString, but the string is restricted in that the alphabetical parts must be legitimate chemical symbols for elements, and the numbers after each element symbol must be an integer. For macromolecules, only those whose true molecular formula is known can have a formula pointed to by this relation. A simple grouping is permitted to express some structure: a hyphen represents a single bond between atom groups, as in 'NH2-CO-NH2' for Urea, or '-COOH' represents a carboxyl group. To specify a name that is not a ChemicalFormula, use 'hasChemicalname'. The ontology name of each NamespacePrefix can serve as a string designating a Namespace, and each such string must be unique within the ontology so that the ontology can recognize and reason about Contexts such as Namespaces. A NamespacePrefix will concatenate with an underscore and any other names or prefixes to uniquely identify (within any ontology) entities such as codes, databses, databse tables, database columns,etc. No entity name in the ontology that is not intended to relate to the databsse or code symbolized by the rpefix should begin its name with that prefix followed by an underscore. It should be unquestioned that any specified prefix, followed by an underscore and other characters, represents som eentity within the context symbolized by that namespace prefix. hasNamespacePrefix Specifies an entity whose ontology identifier can serve as a string which constitutes a unique namespace prefix to be used to make unique identifiers for entities in the ontology. By making the NamespacePrefixes into first-class entities in the ontology, the internal ontology uniqueness function can serve as a check that each NamespacePrefix is unique.. The prefix used for the chemical symbols of elements and compounds (i.e. chemical formulas, which are not necessarily unique for each compound). The chemical symbol for Ethyl alcohol, for example, can be represented as 'CHEM_C2H5OH' or 'CHEM_C2H6O', though the former contains more information; and water would be 'CHEM_H2O'. Elements that have symbols similar to other words can be unambiguosly represented this way, such as 'CHEM_At' for Astatine. An AbstractString representing the atomic composition for well-defined substances, in which each atomic symbol in the String is followed by an integer, or another atomic symbol (implying the integer '1'). Chemical formulas should use the 'CHEM_' namespace prefix, so as to minimize ambiguity, even if the bare formula appears unambiguous. . hasComponentSubstance is used to specify that some particular substance necessarily contains within it a component which is another substance. This is very broad, and can be used to specify multiple heterogeneous types of substance components, such as mixtures, pure chemicals, or elements. Thus we can say that blood contains protein, or that protein contains nitrogen. In addition to substances that are composed of whole molecules, we also permit representation of 'Substances' that are parts of molecules, such as 'phosphateGroup'. The latter type of substance will be represented by the Cyc 'MolecularComponent'. >> This relation is transitive. In order to specify a relation that points only to some primary component(s) (e.g. a polymer contains a unique type of monomer unit), a relation that is not a subrelation of this one must be defined. hasMainComponentSubstance is used to specify that some particular substance necessarily contains within it a dominant component which is another substance. The 'Main Component' substance pointed to will not necessarily be more than 50% of the total, but it will usually be percentage-wise greater than the other Substance components, and in rare cases (such as concentrated solutions of highly soluble solids) when another substance is of greater percentage weight, it should contribute significantly to the properties of the whole Substance; this is the case in some solutions, where the solvent will be pointed to by this relation, even though the solvent will occasionally not be the main constituent by weight. An example of this relation would be to point to Gold as the 'main compnent substance' even for 10-karat gold, where the Gold is less than 50% of the total weight of the Substance, but is the most salient component in terms of properties. For the case when a Substance has some significant properties that characterize a mixture, but may not necessarily be a significant fraction of the weight, the relation 'hasMainActiveIngredient' should be used. The compound with one carbon and two oxygens in each molecule - CO2. COSMO note: This is similar to the Cyc concept 'OrganicMaterial' but has been reinterpreted in COSMO as a substance, not an object. Also, in COSMO cellular substances suc as animal and vegetable materials are subtypes of OrganicSubstance, even though they contain up to 80% by weight of water. So it is not necessary that a substance be composed mostly of organic chemicals to qualify as an 'OrganicSubstance', but the organic compoounds should comprise most of the non-solvent portion of the substance.. Other than the object/substance distinction, it is close to 'OrganicMaterial', but whether there is any useful distinction has not been resolved as of COSMO version 0.48. For ***objects*** that are composed predomintly from stuff derived from living things, see 'OrganicObject'. NOTE that an OrganicSubstance can be complex, and can include inorganic substances such as water. For substances composed predominantly of organic chemicals, use 'OrganicCompound' COSMO: An OrganicSubstance is a PhysicalSubstance (not an Object) whose molecules (other than inert solvent such as water) are composed predominantly of carbon atoms bonded directly either to other carbon atoms or to hydrogen atoms. Many other elements may occur in organic substances, especially oxygen and nitrogen, but the dominant molecules should each have at least one of either a carbon-carbon or carbon-hydrogen bond. Cyc: A collection of tangible things. Each instance of #$OrganicMaterial is a tangible thing composed of one or more types of organic #$Molecule. Instances of #$OrganicMaterial usually have their origin in the bodies (or other products) of living things. Since some organic substances can be synthesized, #$OrganicMaterial is not a subcollection of #$NaturalTangibleStuff. Chemically, instances of #$OrganicMaterial have fairly (or very) complex carbon-based structures. Examples include all instances of the collections #$Oil, #$DNAStuff, #$Alcohol-Compound, #$Ivory, and #$AnimalBodyPart. bd58c3d0-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 In Cyc, named 'OrganicMaterial'. This can be a solid or liquid, and can be an object composed of complex material from a living thing, or an organic chemical of defined composition. Cyc: A collection of tangible things. Each instance of #$OrganicMaterial is a tangible thing composed of one or more types of organic #$Molecule. Instances of #$OrganicMaterial usually have their origin in the bodies (or other products) of living things. Since some organic substances can be synthesized, #$OrganicMaterial is not a subcollection of #$NaturalTangibleStuff. Chemically, instances of #$OrganicMaterial have fairly (or very) complex carbon-based structures. Examples include all instances of the collections #$Oil, #$DNAStuff, #$Alcohol-Compound, #$Ivory, and #$AnimalBodyPart. bd58c3d0-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 An OrganicObject is an object at least as large as a cell of an organism, that consists predominantly of substances which are living or are derived from living things, or are synthetic substances similar to those found in living things. An OrganicObject may be living or dead, or if dead, highly processed, providing that the main active constituent is derived from or similar to those in living things. Thus one muscle or one apple pie would each be an OrganicObject, but one virus particle would be too small to qualify. A macroscopic object consisting of macromolecules such as protein, nucleic acid, or polysaccharide similar to those found naturally would be OrganicObjects, but a quantity of small molecules such as alcohol or amino acid would not be. In the triad 'animal, vegetable or mineral', this would be either of animal or vegetable. NOTE that this Type is disjoint with MineralObject, though an OrganicObject may have some minor portions of Mineral in it. NOTE in particular that a Corpse, skeleton, and FuneraryAshes are classified as 'OrganicObject' although a strong fire may have removed almost all of the carbon in it. COSMO note: This Cyc category is reinterpreted in COSMO to include certain subtypes of 'PhysicalSubstance', that are not subcategorized solely on the basis of composition, or inherent properties depending on composition, but of other attributes, such as state of matter (e.g. SolidSubstance or Gas). One such category is 'CommodityProduct' which treats commercial products sold in quantities (such as potatoes, onions) as 'substances'. Cyc: A collection of collections, and a specialization of #$TemporalStuffType. Each instance of #$ExistingStuffType is a collection of things (including portions of things) which are both temporally and spatially stufflike. Division in time or space does not destroy the stufflike quality of the object (down to a certain granularity). (#$isa STUFFTYPE #$ExistingStuffType) implies both (i) for most instances STUFF of STUFFTYPE, for any proper physical part (see #$physicalParts) PART of STUFF, PART is also an instance of STUFFTYPE and (ii) for all instances STUFF of STUFFTYPE, for most proper physical parts PART of STUFF, PART is also an instance of STUFFTYPE. For example, every piece of wood is temporally stufflike: if W-168 is a piece of wood during 1996, then it's also a piece of wood for the one-minute time-slice 9:05am 7/7/96. It's also spatially stufflike: if we take that piece of wood W-168 and cut it in half, we have two things which are both pieces of wood. Since every piece of wood is both temporally and spatially stufflike, #$Wood is an instance of #$ExistingStuffType. Other instances of #$ExistingStuffType include the collections #$AppleJuice, #$IceCream, #$Diamond, #$WaxedPaper, and #$StriatedMuscle. See the comment for #$StuffType to learn more about the distinctions between, and the need for, these four collections: #$StuffType, #$ObjectType, #$ExistingStuffType, and #$ExistingObjectType. bd59f2ea-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A subcollection of #$PartiallyTangible. Each instance of #$InanimateThing is an (at least partly) tangible thing that is not currently a living structure. Things that were never alive, dead organisms, and dead (or completely non-functioning) organism parts are included in this collection. Examples: #$YaleUniversity, a piece of #$Meat, a dead armadillo, the #$StatueOfLiberty, and a pile of #$Sawdust. Two important specializations of this collection are #$InanimateThing-Natural and #$InanimateThing-NonNatural. bd5905ea-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A #$SecondOrderCollection and a specialization of #$ExistingStuffType (q.v.). Each instance of #$TangibleStuffStateType is a collection of pieces of tangible stuff that are all in the same distinct physical state, where the notion of physical state is a naive (as in #$NaivePhysicsMt) concept of a distinctive physical structure and/or texture. Some instances of #$TangibleStuffStateType have distinctive chemical compositions, such as #$Diamond; but for collections that are distinguished _solely_ on the basis of chemical composition, see #$TangibleStuffCompositionType. #$TangibleStuffStateType includes both (i) collections of substances that can exist only in one distinct physical state (e.g. #$Diamond again) and (ii) collections of pieces of stuff that by definition are in a certain distinct state (e.g. ice). Instances of #$TangibleStuffStateType include #$Foam, #$Rubble, and (#$LiquidFn #$Water). Note that #$Water per se is _not_ an instance of #$TangibleStuffStateType, since some water is in a gaseous state or a solid state. See also (the somewhat orthogonal) #$PhysicalStructuralAttribute. be00c400-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 COSMO note: In Cyc, this was 'SolidTangibleThing', a collection of objects. In COSMO, we rename and repurpose this category to be a solid substance, with subtypes that are substances that are solid at normal temperature and pressure. Cyc comment: An instance of #$ExistingStuffType, and a specialization of #$PartiallyTangible. Each instance of #$SolidTangibleThing is a piece of stuff possessing many of the properties that matter in a solid state (see the constant #$Solid-StateOfMatter) exhibits (although not all instances of #$SolidTangibleThing are formally in a solid state). Instances have a shape independent from their container, and, when deformed with sufficient force (which may be small for weak, brittle materials or high for materials that deform easily), they break. Examples of #$SolidTangibleThings include: pieces of substances in a solid state of matter, such as ice cubes; solid mixtures like a quarter-dollar coin or a paper bag; and complex mixtures of biological origin that behave like solids, e.g., bone. Note that some pieces of matter that are formally in a solid state (for example, pieces of clay) are not instances of #$SolidTangibleThing, since they do not readily break when deformed; for this reason, #$Solid-StateOfMatter is _not_ a specialization of #$SolidTangibleThing. Collections of the solid form of any type of stuff can be created using #$SolidFn (q.v.). bd58c494-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 The attribute of being Opaque, i.e. of not permitting light to pass through. Specifying this can be useful in rendering objects in images, but perhaps it should be the default? NOTE that this is a ColorAttribute, and objects and substances can possess this attribute while also possessing other color attributes. COSMO note: Opacity is an attribute only of objects that have a certain size, or of solid substances; at molecular dimensions, almost nothing will absorb all of the light impinging on it. Cyc comment: #$Opaque is a #$PhysicalAttribute representing a specific degree of #$Transparency. #$Opaque objects do not transmit light. See also #$transparencyOfObject. COSMO note: Opacity is an attribute only of objects that have a certain size; at molecular dimensions, almost nothing will absorb all of the light impinging on it. Cyc comment: #$Opaque is a #$PhysicalAttribute representing a specific degree of #$Transparency. #$Opaque objects do not transmit light. See also #$transparencyOfObject. bd5138d4-74ba-11d6-8000-00a0c99cc5ae COSMO note: as of version 0.49, this category is not properly represented. COSMO has 'Corpse' as a subtype of 'BiologicalLivingObject' and these need to be distinguished. Cyc: The collection of all structures that are composed of one or more living cells (see #$Cell). Note that this can be solid or liquid, because blood and lymph are composed of cells. Biological living objects (or BLO s) might either be instances of #$Organism-Whole (like dogs or pine trees) or components of such whole living organisms (like noses, tails, and pine needles). The healthy leg of a living person is a BLO (as is the person), but an amputated leg is not a BLO. Almost every instance of #$BiologicalLivingObject is either capable of biological reproduction itself or has components which are capable of biological reproduction (such as the cells in a living arm). Red blood cells are abnormal instances of BLO in that they cannot reproduce. bd58a6ed-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 The subcollection of #$PartiallyTangible whose instances are not like fluids. #$NonFluidlike objects do not flow and have an intrinsic shape. #$NonFluidlike is primarily a collection union of #$SolidTangibleThing and #$SemiSolidTangibleThing. It is useful as a genl collection for certain collections whose members can be both #$SolidTangibleThings and #$SemiSolidTangibleThings, like #$Deformable. fe5bdeb6-74b9-11d6-8000-00a0c99cc5ae In OpenCyc this class is a collection of pieces of crystalline material. In COSMO it is reinterpreted as an attribute of some solids. Cyc: The collection of instances of #$PartiallyTangible having a solid crystalline structure. In a crystalline solid the atoms, ions, or molecules are ordered in well-defined arrangements. These solids often have flat faces that make angles with one another. They are frequently translucent and brittle. 892632f8-74bf-11d6-8000-00a0c99cc5ae In OpenCyc called 'Crystalline'. Cyc: The collection of instances of #$PartiallyTangible having a solid crystalline structure. In a crystalline solid the atoms, ions, or molecules are ordered in well-defined arrangements. These solids often have flat faces that make angles with one another. They are frequently translucent and brittle. 892632f8-74bf-11d6-8000-00a0c99cc5ae A relationship that allows one to specify the known time(s) during which an individual organisn (usually an animal) was (is) alive. There can be more than one such time specified, and it must be deducible that an Organism was also alive in the intervals between the known times that it was alive. The full lifetime need not be specified, even if known. In Cyc called 'Organism-Whole'. An Organism must be a whole individual, composed of one or more cells, capable of living independently of other living things (though it may have to feed on other living things, even as a parasite). This cannot be just part of an organism, such as a liver removed and fed in a perfusion apparatus. An organism can be single-celled, like a bacterium. An organism must have a cell membrane that separates the internal cytoplasm from the exterior environment while it is living and metabolizing. Therefore a virus is not an organism, but a different form of life. A seed or spore or other reproductive body that is not metabolically active is not considered as a whole Organism, but as a part or a life stage of an Organism. NOTE carefully that in COSMO v0.2 the category 'Organism' by default is intended to represent typical living adults forms of an organism, but abnormal forms are not actually excluded logically. Therefore though we make certain necessary assertions about an 'Organism' without being concerned about exceptions, the results will be true only in the default case and certain logical contradictiona may occur. This is a temporary measure until a better way of handling default reasoning is implemented. Note, for example, that dead organisms are still categorized as Organisms (this is used mostly for People), even though an Organism is disjoint with 'InanimateThing' - this is to allow the reasoner to catch unintended mistakes of classification. . When exceptional circumstances are encountered, one should use the category 'ImmatureOrganism' or 'AbnormalOrganism'. Rather than reify such categories for each organism type, they can be generated by use of functions on the typical organism Type. If functions are not available in some implementation, reification may be necessary. A more accurate solution would be to leave the organisms as generic, and create a 'typical adult' subtype to hold the values for the prototype. This requires a quasi-duplicate typical type for each organism, which may ultimately be better, but is avoided at the present COSMO stage of version 0.2. Cyc: A specialization of #$BiologicalLivingObject. Each instance of #$Organism-Whole is a biological living object (BLO) that is a whole, and not part of some other BLO. Most instances of #$Organism-Whole are capable of existing and reproducing while physically separate from other organisms (with allowances for eating and mating). Abnormal BLOs which are nonetheless considered to be instances of #$Organism-Whole include instances of #$Virus, as well as sterile hybrids and colony organisms, like those in slime molds or the instances of #$PortugueseManOfWar. An object that has an intrinsic front and back, or an intrinsic bottom and top, or an intrinsic left and right. (The 'or's here are of course inclusive.) See also the comments for the specializations #$FrontAndBackSidedObject, #$LeftAndRightSidedObject, #$TopAndBottomSidedObject, #$HexalateralObject. A perfectly smooth ball bearing is a negative example of a #$BilateralObject. On the other hand, a ball bearing with a dot painted on one side could be considered to have a well-defined front if, for example, the hemisphere centered around the dot were designated as the front side (see also #$NoteAboutSidedObject). A #$FrontAndBackSidedObject is a object with an intrinsic #$FrontSide and an intrinsic #$BackSide. By 'intrinsic' we mean simply that there exists an estabilshed convention according to which one side is considered 'Front' and the other side is considered 'Back'. Usually the two sides in question can be reliably distinguished. Notice that a conventionally distinguishable front and back do not necessarily imply a bottom and top, or a left and right: a #$Worm has a clear-cut front end and a clear-cut back end according to biological convention, but it makes little sense to talk of top, bottom, left or right. However, see also the comment for #$HexalateralObject. Notice also-and this is crucial to the whole conception- that while a #$FrontAndBackSidedObject may well have a preferred orientation and direction of motion, changing either does not change what counts as the 'front' and what counts as the 'back': while I am backing my car out of the driveway in the morning, its back end does not become its front end and vice versa. If an entity does not obey this rule then it does not, generally speaking count as having a distinguishable front and back-example: a dolley, such as is used to transport crates, or some skateboards. hasOrientation specifies the direction toward which the front end of an asymmetric object is pointed, The orientation can be in any number of dimensions. COSMO note: this is for object that are typically oriented vertically in a gravitational field (when functioning normally), and whose top and bottom sides are distinguishable. Cyc: A #$TopAndBottomSidedObject is an object with an intrinsic #$TopSide and an intrinsic #$BottomSide. By 'intrinsic' we mean simply that there exists an established convention according to which one side is considered 'top' and the other side is considered 'bottom'. Usually the two sides in question can be reliably distinguished from one another. For example, by convention, the 'top' of a #$Table-PieceOfFurniture is the side on which other objects usually rest, while the 'bottom' is the side which usually touches the floor. Notice that a conventionally distinguishable bottom and top do not necessarily imply a left and right, or a front and back. A plant is a good example of the case where they do not: top and bottom can be reliably distinguished but not, ordinarily, front and back or left and right. Notice also--and this is crucial to the whole conception--that while a #$TopAndBottomSidedObject may well have a preferred orientation, changing this orientation does not change what counts as 'top' and what counts as 'bottom': if a car flips over on the highway its top is now facing the pavement and its bottom--the undercarriage--is now up in the air. If an entity does not obey this rule then it does not, generally speaking, count as having a distinguishable top and bottom--example: an hourglass or a book. (see also #$NoteAboutSidedObject) be62f2a4-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A #$LeftAndRightSidedObject is an object with an intrinsic left side and an intrinsic right side. By 'intrinsic' we mean simply that there exists an established convention according to which one side is considered 'Left' and the other side is considered 'Right'. Usually, the two sides can be reliably distinguished from one another. Notice that a conventionally distinguishable left and right do not necessarily imply a bottom and top, or a front and back. Interestingly, it has proved impossible so far to find instances of objects with a left and right but no top, bottom, front or back. It is unclear why this should be so, but it apparently pertains to human psychology in reasoning about directions. However, if an object has a conventionally distinguished top, bottom, front, and back, then these suffice to determine an intrinsic left and an intrinsic right. Notice also--and this is crucial to the whole conception--that while a #$LeftAndRightSidedObject may well have a preferred orientation, changing this orientation does not change what counts as 'left' and what counts as 'right': if you turn me upside down my left side does not become my right side and my right side my left. If an entity does not obey this rule then it does not, generally speaking, count as having a distinguishable left and right--example: a houseplant. beb9d424-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A #$HexalateralObject is an object with a well-defined front, back, left, right, top, and bottom. These sides are considered to be intrinsic to the object and do not vary as the object changes position. Any object which is an instance of two different specs of #$BilateralObject is a #$HexalateralObject as a matter of definition-eg, if an object's front and back can be distinguished and its left side can be distinguished from its right, then it also has a well-defined bottom and top. See also comments for #$BilateralObject and for #$FrontAndBackSidedObject, #$LeftAndRightSidedObject, and #$TopAndBottomSidedObject. c123e501-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A specialization of #$PartiallyTangible. Each instance of #$HumanScaleObject is an object that can be perceived and manipulated by human beings. Instances of this collection range roughly from objects the size of pinheads to objects the size of aircraft carriers. COSMO Note: In Cyc, ConstructionArtifacts were subtypes of HumanScaleObject, but that does not fit the definition of manipulable by humans, so a size limit on HumanScaleObject should be considered as not much larger than an Aircraft Carrier, and stationary construction artifacts (which could be as large as the Alaska Pipeline or the Great Wall of China) will be subtypes of MacroscopicObject, which can be very large. For object scales below this one, the sizes decrease in order as: HumanScaleObject PortableObject SmallObject TinyObject Particle MicroscopicScaleObject SubatomicParticle. hasVitalityAttribute specifies whether an animal is alive, dead, sleeping, awake, unconscious, etc. Attributes other than the 'alive' and 'dead' attributes, do not apply to plants or microorganisms. @ToDo: a specialization of this for animals should be created. An instance of #$ExistingObjectType and a specialization of #$Agent-Generic. Each instance of #$IndividualAgent is an instance of #$Agent-Generic that is not itself a group composed of other instances of #$Agent-Generic. Notable specializations of #$IndividualAgent include #$Person and #$Animal. Note that #$Organization is not a specialization of #$IndividualAgent, since instances of #$Organization are groups composed of other instances of #$Agent-Generic. bd58a562-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 The collection of all sentient agents. Instances of #$PerceptualAgent are #$IndividualAgents (q.v.) capable of performing acts of #$Perceiving (q.v.). In many cases information that a perceptual agent gathers through perceiving can influence certain other of the agent's actions. bd58a72d-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 #$EukaryoticOrganism is a specialization of #$Organism-Whole. Each instance of #$EukaryoticOrganism is an organism (individual organism, not type of organism) composed of #$EukaryoticCells (cells which have mitochondria, other organelles, and nuclei containing chromosomes). bfc8323a-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 An instance of #$BiologicalKingdom, and a specialization of #$Organism-Whole. Instances of #$Animal are typically motile, living, whole organisms; they are instances of #$Heterotroph (q.v.), and thus incapable of performing instances of #$Photosynthesis-Generic. Animal cells contain cholesterol and lack cell walls made of cellulose. #$Person is a specialization of #$Animal; see also #$NonPersonAnimal. Note that not all animals are 'IntentionalAgents', able to form plans of action; as of v0.54, only mammals are characterized as IntentionalAgent - but this may change depending on whether evidence of planning is found in other branches of the Animal kingdom. SUMO: An Organism with eukaryotic Cells, and lacking stiff cell walls and photosynthetic pigments. WordNet includes 'creature' and 'beast' in the generic 'animal': 1. (16) animal, animate being, beast, brute, creature, fauna - (a living organism characterized by voluntary movement) bd58b031-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 animal creature creature1n A subset of #$Animal, the collection of all animals which have a mind and are capable of conscious thought, or at least are best treated as such if you have to deal with them. bd58a520-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 the type Part is not solely a relation in COSMO, as it is in some ontologies, but a Role category. Of course, there are 'part' relations such as 'isaPhysicalPartOf', but the Type 'Part' serves a separate though related purpose. Artifacts that are created with the purpose of serving as part of a larger artifact will fit under this category, as will parts of organisms that evolved to serve a function in the organism. COSMO note: PhysicalPartOfObject is here interpreted as a Role, which means that anything classified under this category must have as part of its definition that it is necessarily a part of some larger physical object, in the sense specified in the ontology.. Cyc: The collection of things that are best thought of as parts of other things, and about which we might have something useful to say. Think of table legs, sleeves of garments, etc. This is just to make it easier to search through all this part stuff when someone needs to do so. None of us (#$Guha, Karen, Nick ...) are very happy with this collection ... bd589de9-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 COSMO note: an object is considered as an OrganismPart even if it was severed from the Organism of which it was originally a part. The distinction, when required, between in situ and separated parts is made by assigning attributes to the part. A specialization of both #$PhysicalPartOfObject and #$BiologicalLivingObject. Each instance of OrganismPart is an anatomical part of an organism. This collection includes the gross anatomical parts and microscopic anatomical parts of every individual of every species. In SUMO, approximate equivalent is 'AnatomicalStructure' SUMO: A collection of Cells and Tissues which are localized to a specific area of an Organism and which are not pathological. The instances of this Class range from gross structures to small components of complex Organs. c1005766-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 'hasAssociatedObject' relates one PhysicalObject (or PhysicalObjectType) to another PhysicalObject that is associated with it in some significant way. The subproperty 'hasPhysicalPart' is the most common, but this relation can also be used to specify 'attributes' of Objects that involve some relation with other Objects. For example, a Fingerprint is an Object, and an Object cannot be an Attribute, therefore a Fingerprint cannot be the value of a 'hasAttributeValue' relation. However, an AttributeValue ('FingerprintAttribute') can be defined that points to a Fingerprint using this relation. Other such specialized AttributeValues may also be conveniently described this way. Inverse of isaPhysicalpartOf. Used at the instance level, this creates a Time-dependent assertion that some physical object has a particular part. Note that to 'have' a physical part does not necessarily mean that the physical part is connected to the main body of the object that has it. A musical instrument, disassembled in its carrying case, can be said to exist and have all of its parts present, even though they are not connected. To be sure that an object is **functional** requires more than just knowing that all of the required parts are present. When used between types, an assertion using this relation is to be interepreted as meaning that every instance of the subject has an instance of the objects as a part; but this form of relation does not require that the object instance be instantiated. How to handle this information will depend on the program using the ontology. isaPhysicalPartOf relates physical objects to the larger objects of which they may be parts. This is time-dependent and applies only to instances at a particular time. It is transitive, for any given time point. NOTE that this is an instance-level relation. To express the typical part-whole relation of physical object types, use 'isTypicallyaPhysicalPartOf'. A collection of Cells and Tissues (or subcellular components) which are localized to a specific area of an Organism (plant, animal, microorganism) and which are not pathological. The instances of this Class range from gross structures to small components of complex Organs, or even subcellular organelles or cellular components. The term 'Body' in the name of this type may be misleading, because it includes parts of microorganisms, which are not usually called 'bodies'. @@ToDo: Create a subtype and change the name? Note that this is a Role, which only means that the part was created or evolved for the purpose of being a part of an organism. When removed from the organism, it is still a BodyPart, but will have different attributes (e.g., not in situ). NOTE that this includes only solid parts containing cells; blood and lymph are not included here, see 'BodyFluid'.. #$ExternalAnatomicalPart is a specialization of #$OrganismPart. Each instance of #$ExternalAnatomicalPart is a part of the external anatomy of an organism. Example subcollections include #$Earlobe and #$Leaf. bf30473c-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A PhysicalFeature is either a part of a PhysicalObject, or some hole, cavity, or path through an object that has some spatial shape and can reasonably be referred to as something having some kind of identity. It is parasitic on the PhysicalObject that gives it its identity, and therefore has the character of a Role. It is possible in some cases, like a handle, to be an Object that has had a separate identity at manufacture time, but is always viewed in its role as being or intended to be part of another object. Holes in Objects or bumps on objects are common Features that are not simply identifiable as traditional parts of objects. Features also include parts that are colored differently from other parts of an object: a tatoo on a person's skin is a PhysicalFeature. Also included are parts that are attached or embedded, such as the hair on an animal, or the absence of hair in certain parts (e.g. a bald patch at the crown of the head). This category is heterogeneous, its subtypes being either regions or PhysicalObjects, or the absence of parts of PhysicalObjects where they might ordinarily be. The collection of all outcroppings which stick out from other objects. Instances of this collection are all #$externalParts of some large object. Examples of subsets of this collection are #$Mountains and #$Tail-BodyParts c12ee1b8-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 COSMO note: this includes animal parts as well as whole animals. For whole animals, use 'Animal'. Cyc: A specialization of #$BiologicalLivingObject that includes all living animals, body parts of living animals, and body regions of living animals. #$AnimalBLO is thus the union (see #$collectionUnion) of #$Animal, #$AnimalBodyPart, and #$AnimalBodyRegion (qq.v.). c0fe0761-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A specialization of #$AnimalBLO. Each instance of #$AnimalBodyRegion is a significant spatial subdivision of the body of some animal, where the subdivision in question is usually contiguous, and has some more or less clear boundary. Instances of this collection include anatomical parts (see the specialization #$AnimalBodyPart) , such as a person's head, beard, or right arm. In addition, this collection includes body regions that are not anatomical parts, such as a blister, a puncture wound, or a bruise. SUMO: AnatomicalStructures that are possessed exclusively by Animals. Also, 'parts' composed solely of liquids, such as the blood of an animal, are not included as regions. bd5adaa1-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 The SUMO term for the concept 'AnimalBodyRegion'. A PhysicalObject that is or was a part of some animal. NOTE: this differs from Cyc in that Cyc requires that the part be part of a living animal. Cyc: A specialization of #$AnimalBodyRegion. Each instance of #$AnimalBodyPart is an anatomical part of some living animal, and thus is itself an instance of #$BiologicalLivingObject (q.v). #$AnimalBodyPart includes both highly localized organs (for example, hearts) and physical systems composed of parts distributed throughout an animal's body (such as an animal's circulatory system and nervous system). Note that severed limbs and removed organs are _not_ instances of this collection, since they are not _parts_ of some living animal. NOTE also that body liquids such as blood and lymph are not considered 'AnimalBodyPart' in COSMO, but are categorized as 'BodyFluid'. bd58801c-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 An #$AnimalBodyPartType and a specialization of both #$ExternalAnatomicalPart and #$AnimalBodyPart. #$Appendage-AnimalBodyPart is the collection of all appendages of #$Animals. An appendage is a body part that is connected to, and extends from, an animal's #$Torso (or from another of the animal's appendages, such as a hand extending from an arm). Each appendage is used by the #$Animal for one or more functions. Altogether, appendages serve a wide variety of functions, including locomotion, manipulation, sensing, fighting, scratching, heat dissipation, and balance. Note that appendages are not crucial for the life of the animal; thus a #$Neck-AnimalBodyPart or #$Head-AnimalBodyPart is not considered to be an appendage. bd5882f8-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 #$Limb-AnimalBodyPart is a specialization of #$Appendage-AnimalBodyPart and an instance of #$SymmetricAnatomicalPartType. Each instance of #$Limb-AnimalBodyPart is a bilaterally symmetric #$Appendage-AnimalBodyPart that extends from the #$Trunk-BodyCore; including #$Arm, #$Leg, #$Wing-AnimalBodyPart, #$Flipper, and pectoral #$Fin. A #$Finger, #$Toe, #$Hand, #$Tail-BodyPart, ... is not a #$Limb-AnimalBodyPart. be7d6e49-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 The collection of all #$Animal appendages used for locomotion overland, supporting the animal and moving it along by walking, running, etc. Thus wings, fins, etc., are not #$Legs. The #$Foot-AnimalBodyPart is considered part of the #$Leg. NOTE: SUMO restricts 'Leg' to Primate legs, but in COSMO any animal leg, including insect legs, are instances. SUMO: 'Leg' (more restricted that this type) The lower Limbs of Primates. bd5898cd-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 hasParticipant relates an Event to the things (Objects, Substances) that participate in the Event in some role, as causative agents, or as instruments, or as products or in other roles (e.g. as witnesses). This is the most general 'case' relation that is conceptual rather than strictly grammatical. It can be used to express a relation between types or instances. It will usually be used to refer to past Events, but may refer to future or hypothetical Events.. Participants include the inputs and outputs of Events that are creation or destruction events. See, for example, 'produced'. COSMO note: Objects may 'participate' in an Event without being a 'patient', for example in a BeliefState the Belief involved is a participant in the Event, but the properties of the belief involved are not among the fluents that are affected by the Event. Rather, in that case, the relationship between the Agent and the belief is the fluent. the inverse of 'hasParticipant'. This relation points from an instance of Object (physical or abstract) to an Event in which the Object participated (in any role). A Type-level 'location' relation for Events, to specify that a certain type of Event usually occurs at a certain type of location. This is intended as a type-level relation to avoid the need for instantiating or Skolemizing the values, but the domain is both type and instance level so that a restriction using this relation can be inherited by subtypes. For the instance-level location relation for Events, use 'occurredAt'. For object or region locations, see 'isLocatedAt'. The location specified is a GenericLocation: region of space (connected or disconnected) or an object (physical or abstract) . The value of this relation answers the question 'where does it usually happen?'. . A Type-level 'location' relation for Events, to specify that a certain type of Event *always* occurs at a certain type of location. For the instance-level location relation for Events, use 'occurredAt'. COSMO adopts the Cyc usage that an Organ is a localized body part, and the nervous system is not an Organ. Cyc: A specialization of #$AnimalBodyPart. Each instance of #$Organ is a part of an animal that has a specialized physiological function and is more or less localized within the animal. Examples include hearts, kidneys, and tongues. Specializations include #$InternalOrgan and #$ExternalOrgan. Note that, in most contexts, a distributed system like a #$NervousSystem or a (#$SkinOnFn #$WholeBody) is not an #$Organ. SUMO: A somewhat independent BodyPart that performs a specialized function. Note that this functional definition covers bodily systems, e.g. the digestive system or the central nervous system. Corresponds approximately to noun sense 1 of 'organ' in WordNet: 1. (8) organ - (a fully differentiated structural and functional unit in an animal that is specialized for some particular function) c0fde25a-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 organ organ1n A RelativeLocation is a location that is explicitly relative to something else, which may be a region or an object. All locations are ultimately 'relative' in the sense that they can only be understood by reference to a distance and/or oritentation with respect to some object. However, this Type 'RelativeLocation' is intended to represent those locations that are explicitly relative to something else, in particular objects or regions that are part of some other object or region. A specialization of #$Surface-Generic and #$PartiallyTangible. This is the collection of all physical (and thus technically three-dimensional) surfaces, i.e. tangible surfaces of tangible objects. Each instance of #$Surface-Physical has a (non-zero) thickness that is much less than its average length or width. A physical surface might have holes, tears, or be unconnected and in multiple pieces; it might be flat, curved, or crumpled. Examples include the skin of an apple and the top side of a tabletop. Cf. #$Surface-Intangible. bd590365-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 Any part of the surface of a PhysicalObject, which may include the whole surface (see the subtype 'ExternalSurface-WholeThing'). NOTE that this includes the outer rim of a PhysicalObject that is mostly spread out in two dimensions, such as the wall of a medieval city or of a fort.. The collection of all entire outer physical surfaces of tangible objects. Excludes mere patches or portions of the whole surface of an object. bd589b3e-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 Located on the surface of or outside of some object or Group or Organization, e.g. an ExternalOrgan. This includes the more specific sense of being located on the surface of an Object, which is represented by the subtype 'Superficial'. NOTE: an object that is External' to one whole object may be Internal to another object, if the first object is wholly contained inside the limits of a second object. Corresponds to part of adjective sense 1 of 'external' in WordNet: 1. (10) external - (happening or arising or located outside or beyond some limits or especially surface; 'the external auditory canal'; 'external pressures') . external external1adj Located on the surface of some object, e.g. an ExternalOrgan. This is specific for parts of objects or objects attached to other objects in an external position. or for Events that occur on the durface of some Object. Every Object ?O that has the attribute value 'Superficial' will be related to some Object and its surface by the relations: {?O isLocatedAt ?S} where ?S is the surface of some Object. An Event ?E that is 'Superficial' will be related to an object by the relations: {?E occurredAt ?S} where ?S is the surface of some Object. This attribute is for Objects, and metaphorical uses of 'superficial' (as in personalities) need to be disambiguated by a language interpreter from this sense. This sense includes senses adjective 2 and 4 and part of sense 1 of 'superficial', sense 1 and 2 of adjective 'surface', and corresponds to part of sense 1 of 'external' in WordNet. NOTE that most of the examples of sense 1 are metaphorical, but the gloss includes the physical sense: WN 'external' 1. (10) external - (happening or arising or located outside or beyond some limits or especially surface; 'the external auditory canal'; 'external pressures') WN 'superficial' 1. (4) superficial - (being or affecting or concerned with a surface; not deep or penetrating emotionally or intellectually; 'superficial similarities'; 'a superficial mind'; 'his thinking was superficial and fuzzy'; 'superficial knowledge'; 'the superficial report didn't give the true picture'; 'only superficial differences') 2. superficial - (relating to a surface; 'superficial measurements'; 'the superficial area of the wall') 4. skin-deep, superficial, surface - (involving a surface only; 'her beauty is only skin-deep'; 'superficial bruising'; 'a surface wound') WN 'surface': 1. (2) surface - (on the surface; 'surface materials of the moon') 2. (2) skin-deep, superficial, surface - (involving a surface only; 'her beauty is only skin-deep'; 'superficial bruising'; 'a surface wound') external external1adj superficial superficial1adj superficial2adj superficial4adj surface surface1adj surface2adj Located inside of some Object, Group, or Organization e.g. an InternalOrgan; not on the surface or extending to the surface of an Object; not External. This AttributeValue can characterize Objects, Processes, or Events. Every PhysicalObject that is 'Internal' is located at some Interior, i.e., the Internal part of some larger PhysicalObject. Includes adjective senses 1 and 2 of 'internal' in WordNet: 1. (11) internal - (happening or arising or located within some limits or especially surface; 'internal organs'; 'internal mechanism of a toy'; 'internal party maneuvering') 2. (1) internal, intragroup - (occurring within an institution or community; 'intragroup squabbling within the corporation') . internal internal1adj internal2adj A specialization of the AttributeValue 'Internal', signifying that the entity characterized is not only not on the surface, but at or near to the center of the containing thing. This is a broad sense, including objects ('inner ear'), processes, and Events, and relating to the internal parts or functions of Objects, Organizations, and Groups ('inner council of the administration') Includes adjective senses 2 and 6 of 'inner' in WordNet: WN 'inner' 2. (5) inner - (located or occurring within or closer to a center; 'an inner room') 6. inner - (inside or closer to the inside of the body; 'the inner ear') WN 'interior' 4. interior - (inside and toward a center; "interior regions of the earth") . interior interior1adj inner inner2adj inner6adj A specialization of the AttributeValue 'External', signifying that the entity characterized is near or at the surface or perimeter of some object or place. 'an outer wall' 'the outer gate' Includes adjective senses 1 and 3 of 'outer' and part of adjective sense 1 of 'exterior' in WordNet; (the notion of 'suitable for' as in 'exterior paint' is not included in this sense - this is a location attribute): 1. (6) outer - (being on the outside or further from a center; 'spent hours adorning the outer man'; 'the outer suburbs') 3. outer - (being on or toward the outside of the body; 'the outer ear') WN adj 'exterior': 1. (2) exterior - (situated in or suitable for the outdoors or outside of a building; 'an exterior scene'; 'exterior grade plywood'; 'exterior paints') . exterior exterior1adj outer outer1adj outer3adj #$InternalAnatomicalPart is a specialization of #$OrganismPart. Each instance of #$InternalAnat5omicalPart is a part of the internal anatomy of an organism. Example subcollections include #$CirculatorySystem and #$MiddleEar. NOTE that this includes only solid parts; blood and lymph are not included here. bdc6db2f-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 Each 'Interior' is a PhysicalSpaceRegion that is inside of and does not extend to the surface of an Object or larger PhysicalSpaceRegion. COSMO note: the restriction needs modification - @ToDo: should be somevaluesFrom Interior or some type that is a part of an Organism. Cyc: A specialization of #$InternalAnatomicalPart. #$InternalOrgan is the collection of all organs (see the collection #$Organ) that are also instances of #$InternalAnatomicalPart. Specializations of #$InternalOrgan include #$Liver, #$Stomach, #$Heart, and #$Brain. befc0c68-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A specialization of #$ExternalAnatomicalPart, and #$AnimalBodyPart, and an instance of #$UniqueAnatomicalPartType: the collection of all heads of #$Animals. See also the more specialized #$Head-Vertebrate. bd58ba60-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A specialization of #$InternalOrgan and instance of #$UniqueAnatomicalPartType. Each instance of #$Brain is an organ that controls most bodily movement, receives sensory input from the body and objects outside the body, and also thinks (insofar as the organism that has the brain can be said to do so). SUMO: The seat of the central nervous system. bd58d3eb-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 The 'Mind' is a MentalObject that is the 'location' for the processes of thinking and understanding and feeling in animals. As a non-material thing, it is a vague notion that is defined in various ways, discussed below. Every Mind is 'located' at some Brain; if a Mind is reified, the Brain it is located at must also be reified (and by transitivity, the animal having that Brain). In some usages, the Mind might be considered equivalent to the Brain, but it has traditionally been used to refer to a non-matgerial thing, and will be use dthat way in COSMO. The intimate relation of the Mind to the Brain is indicated by the 'isLocatedAt' restriction. This includes several senses of 'mind' in Random House Webster, but includes the processes that produce emotions as well as rational thinking. RHW sense 1,3, and 4 exclude feelings (sense 2 seems to be more inclusive) and WordNet sense 1 includes feelings, whereas sense 7 appears closer to the COSMO 'Intellect' and to RHW senses 1,3, and 4. In COSMO, Feeling is also located in the Mind. To make the distinction, the type 'Intellect' is used to refer to the *part* of the Mind that is responsible for thinking and reasoning; this is not a physical object, but is used to make sense of statements about what goes on 'in the mind' of a person. RWH 'mind': 1. (in a human or other conscious being) the element, part, substance, or process that reasons, thinks, feels, wills, perceives, judges, etc.: the processes of the human mind. 2. Psychol. the totality of conscious and unconscious mental processes and activities. 3. intellect or understanding, as distinguished from the faculties of feeling and willing; intelligence. 4. a particular instance of the intellect or intelligence, as in a person. This corresponds to sense 1 of 'mind' in WordNet: 1. (121) mind, head, brain, psyche, nous - (that which is responsible for one's thoughts and feelings; the seat of the faculty of reason; 'his mind wandered'; 'I couldn't get his words out of my head') bd58d06f-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 mind mind mind1n COSMO note: Every 'MentalSituation' is an Event, Process, or State that occurs in some Mind. Since every Mind is located in a Brain, MentalSituations also must occur in some Brain (meaning in some animal). Cyc: A specialization of #$Situation. Each instance of #$MentalSituation is a mental situation such as a person seeing the color red, or believing that his enemies control the CIA, or desiring that Fidel Castro shave his beard. An important subcollection of this collection is #$AtLeastPartiallyMentalEvent whice is the collection of mental situations that are events, such as thinking about something or tasting something. Other instances of #$MentalSituation are more long-standing and stable, and hence also instances of #$StaticSituation, e.g., believing something, or having some goal. Cf. #$MentalSituationFn. bee2989e-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 NOTE: name changed in COSMO. In Cyc this is 'AtLeastPartiallyMentalEvent'. Cyc: A collection of events. Each instance of #$AtLeastPartiallyMentalEvent is an event involving the mental functions of a participant or group of participants (see #$actors) in that event. The collection includes such things as dreaming, perceiving, sensing, theorizing about something, having a realization, making a decision, building something, designing something, and consciously carrying out a task. Note that the above list includes both purposeful events and non-purposeful events that involve mental functions. Note also that any event that has a mental component is also an instance of this collection, so that events like preparing lunch would be classified as instances of #$AtLeastPartiallyMentalEvent. In entering knowledge, it is almost always possible and preferable to use one of the specializations of #$AtLeastPartiallyMentalEvent. If an event seems mostly mental in nature, modulo neurons firing and related brain activity, use #$StrictlyMentalEvent or one of its specializations. If it essentially involves both mental and physical activity, see #$CompositePhysicalAndMentalEvent or #$PurposefulPhysicalAction. For mental events that are intentionally and purposefully performed, see the specialization #$PurposefulMentalActivity. COSMO note: this appears to be similar to SUMO 'PsychologicalProcess', which is a subtype of Event. SUMO: A BiologicalProcess which takes place in the mind or brain of an Organism and which may be manifested in the behavior of the Organism. bd588615-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 hadMainParticipant relates an Event to the Object whose properties and relations ('fluents') are the primary things begin represented by the specific type of Event. This relation is used for Events for which a single participant is the dominant theme. The MainParticipant will usually be the subject in an assertion in the active voice, even if it is not an Agent. For things that are acted on, use 'hadAffectedObject'. wasPerformedByAgent points from an Action to the Agent that performed that Action. It is in the past tense, as Events in COSMO are considered as bounded in time, and must be in the past after the end point. This 'perform' relation includes the 'experiencer' case role for mental events. The inverse of 'wasPerformedByAgent' - relates an agen to the action in which s/he was principle agent. 'wasExperiencedBy' points from a MentalEvent to the CognitiveAgent that performed (experienced) that Event. It is in the past tense, as Events in COSMO are considered as bounded in time, and must be in the past after the end point. A Group consisting exclusively of Agents, which may be individuals (people), or Organizations, or GroupsOfPeople. The most common AgentGroups will be groups of people, but there are also groups of Organizations (The United Nations, a Chamber of Commerce) and groups that are of mixed types (a company's customers may be individuals and organizations). Each GroupOfAnimals is Group, each component element of which is an Animal (including people. For a group of non-human animals,use 'GroupOfBeasts'). There must be more than one animal in this kind of Group. This includes GroupOfPeople as a subtype. COSMO note: the kind of thing performing an AnimalActivity can also be an Organization - the implication being that it was performed by some person in the Organization. Cyc: A specialization of #$Action. Each instance of #$AnimalActivity is a spatially-localized action, each of whose doers (see #$doneBy) is either an #$Animal or a group of animals (i.e. a #$Group all of whose members are #$Animals). bd588daa-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 An Event in which some Agent plays a causative role. NOTE that an Agent may cause an action indirectly and with a time delay, via some device - and that action, controlled largely by the device, is still considered as an Action of that Agent in COSMO. This means that the 'action' set in motion by an Agent may continue even after the death of the Agent. Thus, the fire in an oil burner, being controlled by the Agent that controls the oil burner, is considered as an Action here, even though the burner continues for a long time automatically. The Action in such cases of indirect and delayed effects extends from the time at which the Agent started the action until the end of the time when the predictable immediate consequences occur. At some point it will probably be worthwhile distinguishing the Action of setting a Device from the Events controlled by the device, but as of v0.43 that distinction is not encoded. For Actions directly including only the immediate motion of an animal and its direct, almost simultaneous consequences, use 'AnimalActivity'. NOTE that a MentalEvent such as a feeling or Emotion is also considered an Action,as it is performed by a CognitiveAgent. In different ontologies, the same notion has different names: Action(Cyc) IntentionalProcess (SUMO) action(DOLCE) Activity(ISO15926). NOTE: in COSMO we classify an 'Experience' as a subtype of 'Action' to indicate that the focus of the subject is an Agent, even though no Events external to the Agent may be caused by the Experience. Cyc comment: The collection of #$Events (q.v.) that are carried out by some doer (see #$doneBy). Instances of #$Action include any event in which one or more actors effect some change in the (tangible or intangible) state of the world, typically by an expenditure of effort or energy. Note that it is not required that any tangible object be moved, changed, produced, or destroyed for an action to occur; the effects of an action might be intangible (such as a change in a bank balance or the intimidation of a subordinate). Note also that the doer of an action, though typically an #$Agent (q.v.), need not be (e.g. a falling rock that dents a car's roof). Depending upon the context, doers of actions might be animate or inanimate, conscious or nonconscious. For actions that are intentional, see #$PurposefulAction and #$performedBy. SUMO: A 'Process' that has a specific purpose for the 'CognitiveAgent' who performs it. DOLCE: A Perdurant that exemplifies the intentionality of an agent. Could it be aborted, incomplete, mislead, while remaining a (potential) accomplishment ... The point here is that having a result depends on a method, then an action remains an action under incomplete results. As a matter of fact, if we neutralize intentionality, a purely topological, post-hoc view is at odds with the notion of incomplete accomplishments. bd58a841-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 phenomenon[DOLCE?no_actor_involved] A phenomenon is basically an Event that does not include any intentional active participation. Therefore it is disjoint with 'Action'. Natural events that are not caused by the action of an animal will be subtypes of this category. DOLCE (phenomenon) Therefore, it cannot be sequenced by a task. It can be seen as an accomplishment when some intentionality puts boundaries on it (although it is not claimed to be inherently intentional). On the other hand, a purely physical phenomenon does not seem to have inherent boundaries either ... and also for biological processes as well as economic processes this seems to be disputable. If the boundary hypothesis is discarded, phenomenon should migrate under process. A common term, also used in ISO15926, for 'Action'. A specialization of both #$Action (q.v.) and #$Event-Localized. Every instance of #$AnimateActivity is a spatially-localized action, each of whose doers (see #$doneBy and #$animateDoers) is either a #$BiologicalLivingObject or a group of BLOs (i.e. a #$Group all of whose members are BLOs). Specializations of this collection include #$AnimalActivity, #$BiologicalEvent, and #$PhysiologicalProcess. SUMO A normal process of an Organism or part of an Organism. 31d87aae-5580-41d7-8025-c8e9f7c3ffca A specialization of Event specific to Cyc: Cyc: A specialization of #$PhysicalEvent whose instances include translational or rotational movements of whole objects (see #$MovementEvent), objects changing shape (see #$ShapeChangeEvent), as well as events in which salient parts of an object move or change shape in relation to the reference frame of the whole object. For example, although a ticking grandfather clock is not normally undergoing either a #$MovementEvent or a #$ShapeChangeEvent, it can still be said to be moving - and thus undergoing a #$MovementOrShapeChangeEvent - in virtue of the fact that a salient part of the clock, the pendulum, is swinging. (Of course, the pendulum itself is periodically undergoing #$Movement-Rotation, and the tip of the pendulum is undergoing a #$Movement-TranslationEvent.) As a negative example, a catatonic person should not be thought of as undergoing any #$MovementOrShapeChangeEvent. Although blood moves through such a person's veins, her lungs expand and contract, and so on, these things would not normally be considered salient enough to entail that the person herself was undergoing a movement or shape change event. be32a8af-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A specialization of #$Action. Each instance of #$SingleDoerAction is an action which can have only one doer (see the predicate #$doneBy). Such actions may be intentional, but they need not be. Most bodily functions (e.g., the instances of #$Heartbeating or #$Bleeding-TheAction) belong to specializations of #$SingleDoerAction, because the only doer of a normal bodily function is the body of a single agent. In order for a type of action (i.e., a specialization of #$Action) to be a specialization of #$SingleDoerAction, it must be inconsistent to assert, for any instance ACT; of that type of action, both (#$doneBy ACT; X;) and (#$doneBy ACT; Y;), where X; and Y; are different. Notable specializations of #$SingleDoerAction include #$Sleeping, #$Dying, #$AnimalWalkingProcess, and #$WritingByHand. c0fd4844-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A specialization of #$AnimalActivity. Each instance of #$BodyMovementEvent is an event in which an #$Animal moves a part of its own body, whether intentionally or reflexively. Specializations of this collection include #$TakingAStep, #$BlockingAPunch, #$Hiccoughing, and #$Blinking. SUMO: called BodyMotion. SUMO: Any Motion where the agent is an Organism and the patient is a BodyPart. COSMO note: SUMO does not distinguish between voluntary and involuntary body movements, though the subtypes are all voluntary. To be inclusive, this Type is considered the equivalent of SUMO 'BodyMotion'. bd58f6e3-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 COSMO note: taking one step can be performed by any animal with legs, including millpedes. Each TakingAStep can be forward or backward, very slow, normal pace, or fast as in running. Cyc: The act of raising a foot, moving it forwards (backwards in some cases) and placing it down again. bd589806-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 footstep footstep footstep2n This is the most general sense of some physical object or part of a PhysicalObject changing its location or orientation in any way. Turning in place (rotation), vibration, oscillation, moving in circles, as well as complete change of location of an object is included. Called 'MovementEvent' in Opencyc, 'Motion' in SUMO. OpenCyc: A specialization of #$GeneralizedTransfer and #$MovementOrShapeChangeEvent (qq.v.). This is the most general collection of physical movements. Each instance of #$MovementEvent is an event in which at least one object (see #$objectMoving) either translates some distance or moves from one rotational orientation to another, relative to a frame of reference that is not part of the translating/rotating object. The movement in question might be periodic or not, continuous or not. Notable specializations of #$MovementEvent include #$Translocation, #$Movement-Rotation, #$Movement-Periodic, and #$MovementProcess. SUMO: Any Process of movement. Corresponds to verb sense 1 of 'go' and sense 1 of 'move', and includes noun senses 3 and 4 of 'move' and nouns senses 1,2,3, and 6 of 'motion' in WordNet: WN verb 'move' 1. (343) travel, go, move, locomote - (change location; move, travel, or proceed; 'How fast does your new car go?'; 'We travelled from Rome to Naples by bus'; 'The policemen went from door to door looking for the suspect'; 'The soldiers moved towards the city in an attempt to take it before night fell'). WN noun 'move': 3. (57) motion, movement, move, motility - (a change of position that does not entail a change of location; 'the reflex motion of his eyebrows revealed his surprise'; 'movement is a sign of life'; 'an impatient move of his hand'; 'gastrointestinal motility') 4. (30) motion, movement, move - (the act of changing location from one place to another; 'police controlled the motion of the crowd'; 'the movement of people from the farms to the cities'; 'his move put him directly in my path') WN noun 'motion': 1. (22) movement, motion - (a natural event that involves a change in the position or location of something) 2. (8) gesture, motion - (the use of movements (especially of the hands) to communicate familiar or prearranged signals) 3. (6) motion, movement, move, motility - (a change of position that does not entail a change of location; 'the reflex motion of his eyebrows revealed his surprise'; 'movement is a sign of life'; 'an impatient move of his hand'; 'gastrointestinal motility') 6. (1) motion, movement, move - (the act of changing location from one place to another; 'police controlled the motion of the crowd'; 'the movement of people from the farms to the cities'; 'his move put him directly in my path') bd590401-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 go go go1v move move move1v motion move3n move4n The Cyc term for the Event in which Motion occurs.. COSMO note: this is for complete changes of location; for the more geenral sense of 'motion' or changes of orientation, or changes of location of a part of an object (e.g. moving one's hand), use the more general 'Motion'. SUMO: Translocation is that class of Motions in which an object moves from one place to another. In the case of round trips, the origin and destination are the same, but the intervening motion passes through other locations. Translocation represents linear motion, in contrast to rotation or other movement in place. A vehicle is not necessary; Ambulating is a kind of Translocation. Cyc comment: A subcollection of #$MovementEvent. Each instance of #$Translocation is a movement across a distance; thus there is both a location that it is a movement from (see #$fromLocation) and a location that it is a movement to (see #$toLocation). (These two locations might or might not be distinct, considering round-trips.) Note that instances of #$Translocation might or might not involve a salient moving object (see #$objectMoving); for those that do see the specialization #$Movement-TranslationEvent; for some that don't see #$WavePropagation. Corresponds to noun sense 6 of 'motion' , noun sense 4 of 'move' and verb sense 1 of 'move' in WordNet: WN 'motion' 6. (1) motion, movement, move - (the act of changing location from one place to another; 'police controlled the motion of the crowd'; 'the movement of people from the farms to the cities'; 'his move put him directly in my path') WN noun 'move': 4. (30) motion, movement, move - (the act of changing location from one place to another; 'police controlled the motion of the crowd'; 'the movement of people from the farms to the cities'; 'his move put him directly in my path') WN verb 'move' 1. (343) travel, go, move, locomote - (change location; move, travel, or proceed; 'How fast does your new car go?'; 'We travelled from Rome to Naples by bus'; 'The policemen went from door to door looking for the suspect'; 'The soldiers moved towards the city in an attempt to take it before night fell'). bf81a890-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 move motion motion6n move move4n move1v A specialization of #$Translocation. Each instance of #$Movement-TranslationEvent is an event in which an object (an instance of #$SomethingExisting) moves some distance (so that at some point in the event, the object's center of mass changes location with respect to the relevant frame of reference). The moving object need not move completely out of its original spatial extent; for example, a building moving one foot to the left undergoes a #$Movement-TranslationEvent. Instances of #$Movement-TranslationEvent include events in which the movement ends in the same place it started from (e.g. one lap of a race car around the Indianapolis race track, or a trip to the grocery store and back). In such cases (all of which are instances of the specialization #$Translation-NoLocationChange), the to and from locations of the movement (see the predicates #$toLocation and #$fromLocation) are identical. In other cases of #$Movement-TranslationEvent (e.g. the movement of the baseball during a home run hit by Roger Maris), the to and from locations are different; in these cases, the movement events are also instances of #$Translation-LocationChange (q.v.). bd588e70-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A collection of translational motion events; hence a subcollection of #$Movement-TranslationEvent. In each instance of #$Translation-Complete, the entire moving object (see #$objectMoving) moves from the place of origin (see #$fromLocation) to the destination (see #$toLocation). That is, the object completely leaves the origin and relocates to the destination. The moving object may be either a #$NonFluidlike object (e.g. a baseball) or a #$FluidTangibleThing all of which moves from one place to another (e.g. the gasoline used to fill a gas tank). Another example: a single molecule of water flowing from point A to point B in a river. Non-examples: a river flowing from A to B (the river itself is not relocated); a rubber band stretching. A borderline case: a spider spins a web, leaving part of itself, in effect, extended out behind it; in most contexts that would still be considered a #$Translation-Complete. Note that #$Translation-Complete is noncommittal as to whether net movement has occurred, so round-trip events qualify as complete translations (cf. #$Translation-LocationChange). bd61f7aa-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A specialization of #$Movement-TranslationEvent. Each instance of #$Translation-SingleTrajectory is a translational movement that involves exactly one #$trajectory-Complete. One or more items might have the role of #$objectMoving in such an event. Note that although there is a single #$trajectory-Complete, it does not follow that there is a unique place in the role of #$fromLocation or #$toLocation because that depends on our descriptions of these locations. (E.g. the same single-trajectory movement can be described as from Texas to Pennsylvania, from Austin to Pittsburgh, or from northwest Austin to south Pittsburgh.) However, the single #$trajectory-Complete connects one from-location and one to-location. (Similarly, there may be a single existing #$motionPathway-Complete that the trajectory goes along, or a single #$Traversal of paths indicated by #$traverses-Complete.) Note that a translational motion performed by a whole #$Group is likely to be a #$Translation-SingleTrajectory; e.g. a flock of birds flying together or a snarl of rush-hour traffic on the Beltway. Non-examples include an opening break in a game of billiards and a group of water droplets coming together into one big drop. Contrast with #$Translation-MultiTrajectory. bd5b0dc8-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 This is the collection of movement events in which the #$primaryObjectMoving is moving under its own control, and usually under its own power. This entails that the moving object is an agent. Most animals, many bacteria, and some robots are capable of #$LocomotionEvents; inanimate objects and plants are not. c0b3e401-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 The collection of processes in which a #$providerOfMotiveForce moves from one place to another under, or as if under, its own control. This includes not only animals moving around autonomously (c.f. #$LocomotionProcess-Animal), but also locomoting devices such as cars, submarines, and airplanes, which are controlled either internally or remotely by distinct #$Agents, but share significant properties with locomoting #$Animals - notably that their trajectories are not just functions of forces such as gravity and resistance, but rather can have abrupt changes of direction or speed that are or appear purposeful. This collection also explicitly includes locomoting events in which the #$providerOfMotiveForce is a non-agent natural force such as gravity, so long as the object moving is or appears to be in control of its trajectory of motion. Thus someone downhill skiing or hang-gliding would be a positive example. bea637c7-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 COSMO note: DOLCE distinguishes Events that have temporal parts with similar character, i.e. the same sort of thing occurs throughout the tie interval of the Event. In OpenCyc, such 'homogeneous' events are represented using 'StuffType' metaclasses. A special subclass is the 'State' where nothing happens over some time interval. 'State' is an important concept in PSL and situation calculus. DOLCE: An occurrence-type is stative or eventive according to whether it holds of the mereological sum of two of its instances, i.e. if it is cumulative or not. A sitting occurrence is stative since the sum of two sittings is still a sitting occurrence. A PersistentState is an Event in which all relevant attributes or relations (any one or more 'fluents' in PSL) remains constant over some time interval. A special limiting subtype would be an InstantaneousState, for which the time interval is of zero duration. NOTE That if an Object is specified as having some Attribute during some interval of time, that is equivalent to specifying the existence of a PersistentState for that Object during that interval. COSMO note: DOLCE has a convoluted description of what a 'State' is. For COSMO, a PersistentState (what appears to be a 'State' in DOLCE) it is very simply an Event in which nothing changes over some interval of time - - i.e. nothing changes that the knowledge enterer considers significant for her/his purposes. This can be viewed as the limiting case of an Event, in which so little of significance happens that it is not worth mentioning. DOLCE: Within stative occurrences, we distinguish between states and processes according to homeomericity: sitting is classified as a state but running is classified as a process, since there are (very short) temporal parts of a running that are not themselves runnings.In general, states differ from situations because they are not assumed to have a description from which they depend. They can be sequenced by some course, but they do not require a description as a unifying criterion.On the other hand, at any time, one can conceive a description that asserts the constraints by which a state of a certian type is such, and in this case, it becomes a situation.Since the decision of designing an explicit description that unifies a perdurant depends on context, task, interest, application, etc., when aligning an ontology to DLP, there can be indecision on where to align a state-oriented class. For example, in the WordNet alignment, we have decided to put only some physical states under 'state', e.g. 'turgor', in order to stress the social orientedness of DLP. But whereas we need to talk explicitly of the criteria by which we conceive turgor states, these will be put under 'situation'.Similar considerations are made for the other types of perdurants in DOLCE.A different notion of event (dealing with change) is currently investigated for further developments: being 'achievement', 'accomplishment', 'state', 'event', etc. can be also considered 'aspects' of processes or of parts of them. For example, the same process 'rock erosion in the Sinni valley' can be conceptualized as an accomplishment (what has brought the current state that e.g. we are trying to explain), as an achievement (the erosion process as the result of a previous accomplishment), as a state (if we collapse the time interval of the erosion into a time point), or as an event (what has changed our focus from a state to another).In the erosion case, we could have good motivations to shift from one aspect to another: a) causation focus, b) effectual focus, c) condensation d) transition (causality). If we want to consider all the aspects of a process together, we need to postulate a unifying descriptive set of criteria (i.e. a 'description'), according to which that process is circumstantiated in a 'situation'. The different aspects will arise as a parts of a same situation. A specialization of #$Situation-Localized. Each instance of #$PhysicalSituation is a spatially localized situation involving one or more physical objects or stuffs (see #$situationConstituents). Important specializations include #$PhysicalEvent and #$AilmentCondition. 7bdc4888-8636-41d7-894d-9e94e3976266 Any state or Event occurring in our real universe (not in any fictional or hypothetical world) within some interval of time. An instance of 'Reality' would be the things existing and happening in some interval of time in some region of space. The whole of Reality over all time is the entity 'RealWorld', which is not an Event. @ToDo relate 'Reality' with 'RealWorld' This does not cover 'truth' within some theoretical or axiomatically defined system.. Any state or Event hypothesized to occur, but not in fact occurring in our real universe within the specified interval of time and space. Instances of 'NonReality' would be fictional or counterfactual Events, or ErroneousBeliefs. . The collection of all temporal situations in which two or more tangible objects are touching (see #$touches) for at least part of the situation's duration. This includes an object's rubbing against another, objects colliding, as well as static touching configurations. Note that, although most types of #$PhysicalEvents involve some kind of touching, only those types for which contact is salient should be subcollections of #$PhysicalContactSituation. bfffa642-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A collection of processes. In instances of #$TranslationAlongASurface an #$objectMoving is moving along a #$motionPathway-Complete in contact with a liquid or solid surface. The #$objectMoving crosses [see #$trajectoryPassesThrough] the #$Perimeter of any #$toLocation or #$fromLocation that is a #$Surface-Open. bdd346cd-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 The collection of all locomotion events in which the locomotor moves along, and is supported by, a #$SolidTangibleThing. Includes walking, slithering, somersaulting, etc. c08d344c-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 COSMO note: we make a series a subtype of LinearlyOrderedGroup: specifically, the ordering relation is that the component elements are arranged in a linear fashion. It can be concrete or abstract. A series will typically have more than one component element, but to allow broader generalization, it may have only one element. Cyc: A specialization of #$Group (q.v.). Each instance of #$Series is a complex temporal thing in which two or more other things are ordered in a linear fashion. Examples include a line of people at a ticket booth (an instance of the specialization #$PhysicalSeries) and a series of pitches in a baseball game (an instance of the specialization #$EventSeries). In each instance of #$Series, there is some relation by which its members are ordered (see the related predicate #$seriesOrderedBy); this relation often varies from series to series. be8e694c-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 An 'ActionSeries' is an Action that is composed of a Series (a LinearlyOrderedGroup) of Actions. The ordering of the Actions in the series corresponds to the time-sequence of the Acdttions in the ActionSeries. A specialization of #$LocomotionEvent, #$AnimalActivity, #$SingleDoerAction, and #$PurposefulAction. In each instance of #$LocomotionEvent-Animal, the object moving (see #$objectMoving) is an instance of #$Animal. Notable specializations of #$LocomotionEvent-Animal include #$Climbing, #$Swimming-Generic, and #$WalkingOnTwoLegs. Other specializations include types of events, such as single-person canoeing and #$Skating, in which a person moves himself or herself using a device to which s/he supplies the motive force. Note that instances of locomotion of several animals working together; e.g., tandam bicycling, a crew team rowing a boat, running a three-legged race; are not instances of this collection. bd58e64e-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 COSMO note: Ambulation is an ActionSeries in which the individual actions are taking one step with one or more legs. Eachstep may consist of a single footstep while walking or running, or a hop in the case of Hopping. Cyc: A specialization of #$Locomotion-SolidSurface: the collection of all locomotion events on solid surfaces in which an #$Animal moves by lifting its feet, moving them through the air, and setting them down in a new location. Includes walking (cf. 'Walking'), #$Running, skipping, trotting, etc. NOTE: called 'Ambulating' in SUMO. SUMO: Any BodyMotion which is accomplished by means of the legs of an Animal for the purpose of moving from one point to another. bdd4cc3a-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 The SUMO term for 'Ambulation'. hasCapability relates an Agent or Object to some type of Action that the Agent or Object has the ability to perform or serve as instrument in. isNormallyLocatedAt is a relation that relates individual Objects or Object types to a location where it is typically (more often than not) found, thus specifying where they would 'normally' be located. This is a crude way of encoding defaults and probabilities in locating objects. Perhaps the most useful function of this relation is to specify where parts of things are suppose to be located, when they are in their proper place. The proper location for Body parts or device parts can be specified using this relation. The location can be a Type, or can be a specific location. The reason one needs a 'typically' relation such as this is that things that have a natural location (e.g. the brain is usjually in the head) can be removed from that location, and still be considered as an instance of that type. For example, a brain may be removed from the body during an autopsy, and it is still referred to as the brain of that (dead) person. isTypicallyaPartOf relates types objects to other types of objects, where the one is typically (more often than not) a part of the other. This relation is a type-level relation and can be used for wither physical or abstract objects. For physical objects, the more specific 'isTypicallyaPhysicalPartOf' should be used For abstract objects, this relation can be used to relate parts of things like texts or grammars to the larger structures of which they are typically a part. isTypicallyaPhysicalPartOf relates types physical objects to other types of physical objects, where the one is typically (more often than not) a part of the other. This relation is a type-level relation and is not time-dependent - though the relation may be invalidated of the definition of a physical object type changes. It expresses a probability, and its transitive closure also expresses a similar probability. Its inverse is 'typicallyHasPhysicalPart' though the probabilities in the two directions are not necessarily the same. 'typicallyHasPhysicalPart' relates types of physical objects to other types of physical objects that are usually found as (or designed to be) a part of the first object. This relation is a type-level relation and is not time-dependent - though the relation may be invalidated of the definition of a physical object type changes. It expresses a probability, and its transitive closure also expresses a similar probability. Its inverse is 'isTypicallyaPhysicalPartOf' though the probabilities in the two directions are not necessarily the same. 'isAnOrganicPartOf' is a subproperty of isTypicallyaPhysicalPartOf, specialized for describing physical parts of Organisms that originate as parts of Organisms or as parts of larger parts of Organisms. This a Finger 'isAnOrganicPartOf' a Hand. This merely describes the usual origin of such objects; the object (e.g. Finger) may be severed from the whole without destroying its identify (e.g. as a Finger) . A 'WalkingAnimal' is an Animal that uses legs as its primary means propulsion. This includes hopping animals such as grasshoppers and kangaroos - 'walking' here just means propelling by means of legs, which is termed 'Ambulation' in COSMO. Note that birds may hop while on the groundm and 'Hopping' is one form of 'Ambulation', but for flying birds this is not the primary means of propulsion. For flightless birds, Walking is the primary means of propulsion. So this is a broad category including many arthropods and some birds, as well as most mammals. NOTE that the capability is for a protypical animal of this category, and some individuals may not have the ability to walk, even though the prototype of the species can. Any attribute that specifically describes the shape of an object. Redefined as an attribute value. Cyc: The collection of objects with a structure that divides into containing cells or compartments. This includes both multi-cellular organisms and non-living cellular objects like beehives. 6d619d58-74bc-11d6-8000-00a0c99cc5ae The three-dimensional shape of a typical person: a head, torso, two arms, two legs. People with missing limbs will have a different shape attribute. COSMO note: 'cellular' is reclassified as a shape attribute. Cyc: #$MulticellularOrganism is a specialization of #$Organism-Whole. Each instance of #$MulticellularOrganism is an organism that is composed of more than one cell. In other words, this is the collection of all instances of #$Organism-Whole that are not instances of #$SingleCellOrganism. c08c4a77-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 The collection of all instances of Animal that are not instances of Person. Sometimes called 'Beast', but in COSMO this includes all non-human Animals, including insects, worms, fish, etc. NOTE: that Cyc distinguished 'Person' and 'Human' but that distinction is not followed in COSMO, so 'NonPersonAnimal' has been merged with 'NonHumanAnimal' Cyc (#$NonPersonAnimal) The collection of all instances of #$Animal that are not instances of #$Person, and thus incapable of participating in the activities and social roles characteristic of personhood. (For the more 'biological' concept of #$Animals that are not instances of #$HomoSapiens, see #$NonHumanAnimal). e6534f90-c2e0-41d7-80ce-bf3bf02a1467 bd58e066-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 animal creature creature1n Another term for 'NonHumanAnimal'. ('Tain't a fit night out for man nor beast). Another term for 'NonHumanAnimal'. This term is also used to refer to all animals. A specialization of #$Animal and an instance of #$OrganismClassificationType. Each instance of #$Homeotherm is a warm-blooded animal. That is, each instance is an animal that is able to maintain a stable body temperature relative to its environmental temperature. Cf. #$Poikilotherm. bd59432f-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A specialization of #$Animal. Each instance of #$ViviparousAnimal is an animal which is born from its mother's body. Cf. #$OviparousAnimal. bf058d0f-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 AN organism that eats animals - in Cyc includes carnivorous plants. In Cyc called 'Carnivore', but that term is usually reserved for the mammals, so 'Carnivore' is made a subtype of this category. Cyc: An #$OrganismClassificationType that classifies organisms by their typical source of food. Instances of #$Carnivore typically eat animals (or animal parts or animal-derived products) exclusively. Note that #$Carnivore is _not_ an instance of #$BiologicalTaxon (q.v.); cf. #$CarnivoreOrder. Also note that a #$Carnivore is not necessarily a #$Heterotroph; e.g. carnivorous plants both digest insects and produce food using #$Chlorophyll. bd5904f5-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A specialization of #$MulticellularOrganism and #$Animal. This is the collection of (individual) organisms that have three well-defined derm layers, an ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm, and posses a coelem. A coelem is a fluid-filled body cavity between the outer body wall and the gut. Members of the phylum Annelida (segmented worms), for example, are #$Coelomates. be8ad325-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 An instance of #$BiologicalPhylum within the #$BiologicalKingdom #$Animal, the #$ChordataPhylum contains the many chordate taxa. All chordate taxa have members who have a notochord (a flexible rod running the length of the body) at some stage of development and pharyngeal gills at some stage of development. The #$ChordataPhylum has as #$taxonMembers all the specializations of #$Vertebrate (including #$Person), as well as some non-vertebrate chordates like Amphioxus. bd59063b-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 An instance of #$BiologicalTaxon within the #$BiologicalPhylum #$ChordataPhylum. Each instance of #$Vertebrate is an animal that has a backbone or spine made of bony or cartilaginous vertebrae, which may be separate or fused. Notable specializations of #$Vertebrate include #$Mammal, #$Reptile, #$Bird, and #$Fish. bd58a5e6-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 #$AirBreathingVertebrate is a specialization of #$Vertebrate and an instance of #$OrganismClassificationType. Each instance of #$AirBreathingVertebrate is a vertebrate that usually respires by breathing #$Air during adult life. Includes individual #$Mammals, #$Birds, #$Reptiles, and most #$Amphibians. Most #$AirBreathingVertebrates are #$TerrestrialOrganisms, but some #$AquaticOrganisms breathe air (#$Whales, etc.). All #$AirBreathingVertebrates have #$Lungs and #$RespiratoryTracts. bef7c9c1-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 Mammals (female variety) can suckle their young (under certain circumstances), and also typically have hair. The playpus lays eggs, so not all mammals bear their young live. Cyc: An instance of #$BiologicalClass, and a sub-taxon of #$Vertebrate. Each instance of #$Mammal is an air-breathing, warm-blooded animal which, if female, nurses its young with milk secreted by mammary glands. The skin of instances of #$Mammal is typically covered with hair (or sometimes hair modified into scales or plates, as in pangolins), but some types are almost hairless. All mammals other than the Monotremes of Australia bear live young rather than laying eggs, and have teats, which on females are used for nursing the young. Monotremes do not have teats, but both male and female produce milk from mammary glands. bd58a628-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 #$Eutheria is a specialization of #$Mammal. Each instance of #$Eutheria is a placental mammal; most mammals are members of this collection. #$Eutheria are born live, nurse from their mothers' #$MammaryGlands and live outside their mothers' bodies. c0d463be-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 'feedsOn' is a specialized relation specifying the kind of food that an animal *typically* eats. This is primarily useful to describe the distinction between carnivores and herbivores, and in some cases the specialized eating habits of other types of animals. The typical food can be a substance ('Meat') or a type of organism (e.g. some birds specialize in eating insects, others prefer to eat seeds). NOTE: The range is ObjectType. isDerivedfrom relates certain naturally occurring substances to the type of object from which they may be derived. 'Derived' in this sense can mean that the substance (e.g. bone) is still in situ - or, it can mean that the substance was removed from its natural setting and was processed in some way, in which case it would become a ProcessedNaturalSubstance. For substances derived by processing other substances, use 'isPreparedFromSubstance'. A GoodThing is a generic class that can be used to label certain types of objects or situations as desirable, and therefore something to pay attention to, and perhaps to try to otain or try to do or get done. An attribute of things - events, properties, or objects - that are worthy of paying attention to because they are often (but not always) important or at least interesting to intelligent agents. This is an attribute that can be used to mark things that an agent should keep in mind. An attribute of things - usually events, objects, or situations, but also of other types (e.g. time of occurence of some repeating event) - that are **not unusual** and too common (at least for its type) to be considered notable; synonyms: everyday, common, ordinary, unremarkable; for events, 'routine' and 'usual' would convey a similar meaning - see the subtype 'Routine'. Representing the meanings of the component senses will require FOL expressiveness. Corresponds to senses 4 and 5 of 'common' in RHW, modifying both objects and Events: 4. widespread; general; ordinary: common knowledge. 5. of frequent occurrence; usual; familiar: a common event; a common mistake. Corresponds to adjective sense 2 of 'common' and sense 2 of 'familiar' and senses 1 and 2 of 'ordinary' in WordNet: WN 'common': 2. (15) common - (having no special distinction or quality; widely known or commonly encountered; average or ordinary or usual; "the common man'; 'a common sailor'; 'the common cold'; 'a common nuisance'; 'followed common procedure'; 'it is common knowledge that she lives alone'; 'the common housefly'; 'a common brand of soap') WN 'familiar' 2. (2) familiar - (within normal everyday experience; common and ordinary; not strange; 'familiar ordinary objects found in every home'; 'a familiar everyday scene'; 'a familiar excuse'; 'a day like any other filled with familiar duties and experiences') WN 'ordinary' 1. (38) ordinary - (not exceptional in any way especially in quality or ability or size or degree; 'ordinary everyday objects'; 'ordinary decency'; 'an ordinary day'; 'an ordinary wine') 2. (4) average, ordinary - (lacking special distinction, rank, or status; commonly encountered; 'average people'; 'the ordinary (or common) man in the street') common familiar common common2adj familiar familiar2adj ordinary ordinary2adj ordinary1adj frequent frequent frequent2adj A synonym of 'Common'. An attribute of Events that have no special salient qualities and are too common to be considered notable; synonyms everyday, common, ordinary. Corresponds to adjective sense 2 of 'routine' and sense 2 and part of sense 1 of 'usual' in WordNet. The 'usual time' sense is excluded - that sense will be assumed by the parent 'Common' in COSMO until more subsenses of 'common' are defined. WN 'routine': 2. (2) everyday, mundane, quotidian, routine, unremarkable, workaday - (found in the ordinary course of events; 'a placid everyday scene'; 'it was a routine day'; 'there's nothing quite like a real...train conductor to add color to a quotidian commute'- Anita Diamant) WN: 'usual': 1. (29) usual - (occurring or encountered or experienced or observed frequently or in accordance with regular practice or procedure; 'grew the usual vegetables'; 'the usual summer heat'; 'came at the usual time'; 'the child's usual bedtime') 2. (2) common, usual - (commonly encountered; 'a common (or familiar) complaint'; 'the usual greeting') A synonym of 'Routine'. The collection of all #$Resources consists in things that are useful, i.e. things that are either needed or helpful for carrying out a task or running a system. Resources include financial resources, energy resources, raw materials, information, infra-structure, the ability to perform actions (an AttributeValue) and so on. Certain types of people may qualify as 'Resource' - employees, slaves, contractors, etc. But 'Resource' is a Role, and not all people are Resources - it depends on the situation. The inclusion of 'Capability' as a specialization of 'Resource' conforms to sense 6 of 'resource' in the Random House Webster: '6. capability in dealing with a situation or in meeting difficulties: a woman of resource.' Important NOTE: A Resource does not necessarily have to have a net positive value, it merely needs to be useful in some situation. Some things that may count as resources may be, depending on the situation, a 'white elephant', i.e. the cost of ownership may exceed the monetary value of its practical utility. For resources that have a net positive value, the subtype 'Asset' is used. c0c575fd-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 COSMO note: this is not a specialiation of EdibleStuff, as we redefine edible stuff as Organic. In the Cyc terminology,this would be 'EdibleOrDrinkableStuff'. The problem is that 'EdibleStuff' can be poisonous, so it is not the same as Food. This type should be made disjoint from Poisonous stuff. NOTE: Food would be a 'ConsumableProduct' if all Food were commercial products, but some foods are not commercially produced. Cyc: A specialization of #$EdibleStuff (q.v.). Each instance of #$FoodOrDrink is a substance which instances of some type of organism (that is, some sub-collection of #$Organism-Whole) normally consume a significant part of. Important specializations of #$FoodOrDrink include #$Food (instances of which require chewing in order to be consumed) and #$Drink (instances of which are liquids that can be consumed without chewing). bd58e69c-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 COSMO note: redefined as strictly organic, so water and salts are excluded, but having water up to 80% as in meat and vegetation still allow a substance to be considered an 'OrganicSubstance'. For predominantly organic materials, use 'OrganicCompound'. Cyc: An instance of #$ExistingStuffType and a specialization of #$PartiallyTangible. Each specialization of #$EdibleStuff is a type of partially tangible stuff which all normal instances of some specialization of #$Organism-Whole can consume and successfully metabolize a significant portion of any instance of, with or without resulting harm to themselves. This collection includes virtually all animal and vegetable matter, as well as salts, potable water, and instances of #$OralDrug. It does not necessarily include things that are ingested but not metabolized, such as the stones that birds swallow to aid in digestion, or dirt, paint chips, and coins ingested by children. The function #$EdibleByFn is used to specify the collections of edible stuff that are ingestible by all normal instances of certain specializations of #$Organism-Whole, including #$Person. Note that whether an edible substance _also_ has a detrimental effect if eaten is a separate question. Something can be both edible and poisonous. bd5908ef-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A SubstanceRole is a Substance that is categorized by the Role it plays or is intended to play in some Event, such as a DrugSubstance. A Substance, not an object, that may be beneficial or harmful or innocuous, but in any case has some effect on the physiological functioning of an organism. SUMO: A Substance that is capable of inducing a change in the structure or functioning of an Organism. This Class includes Substances used in the treatment, diagnosis, prevention or analysis of normal and abnormal body function. This Class also includes Substances that occur naturally in the body and are administered therapeutically. Finally, BiologicallyActiveSubstance includes Nutrients, most drugs of abuse, and agents that require special handling because of their toxicity. A specialization of #$EdibleStuff. Each instance of #$Nutrient is a substance considered necessary or beneficial in the diet of a person or animal. If a food or a pill is sold in a package, often the nutrients in the food or pill are listed on the package label. Specializations of #$Nutrient include #$EdibleSodium, #$ProteinStuff, #$EdibleCalcium, #$EdibleIron, and #$Vitamin. SUMO: A BiologicallyActiveSubstance required by an Organism. It is generally ingested as Food, and it is of primary interest because of its role in the biologic functioning of the Organism. bd58d3c5-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 Food is a collective term denoting any substance that is eaten by animals for nourishment, or can be eaten for nourishment. NOTE that Food is a subtype of 'EdibleStuff' which has been redefined from the Cyc meaning to exclude liquids, and include only organic materials. 'Food' in COSMO is a substance, not a PhysicalObject. For the PhysicalObjects that consist of Food substances, see 'FoodObject'. Cyc comment: An instance of #$ExistingStuffType, and a specialization of #$FoodOrDrink. Each instance of #$Food is a particular portion of food of a type which can be, and habitually is, eaten by humans or other animals. Here the notion of _eating_ is important; eating an instance of #$Food will generally require biting or chewing, but if placed into the mouth (e.g. with a utensil) in a manner not considered to be drinking, it is still considered eating. Thus, edible stuff normally taken in via drinking, inhalation, or osmosis is excluded from this collection. A borderline example is a bowl of bouillon, which, although it can be drunk from the bowl is normally ''eaten'' with a spoon; a borderline non-example is a very thick milkshake, which may be eaten with a spoon, but is normally drunk (possibly using a straw) from a glass. Instances of #$Food provide calories and/or nutrients that humans or animals need. bd58bd8b-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 SUMO: Any Food which was originally part of the muscle tissue of an Animal and is not ingested by drinking. Note that this class covers both raw meat and meat that has been prepared in some way, e.g. by cooking. Note too that preparations involving a combination of Meat and FruitOrVegetable are classed directly under Food, not as subtypes of this Type. NOTE that whole animals, even though they may be eaten by other animals, are not categorized as 'Meat'. bd58bd46-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 In Cyc called 'CarnivoreOrder'. The restriction requires that a Carnivore feedsOn (typically) 'Meat'. Specific types of Carnivore may feed on specific animals - that can be expressed as a restriction on the subtypes. SUMO: The Class of flesh-eating Mammals. Members of this Class typically have four or five claws on each paw. Includes cats, dogs, bears, racoons, and skunks. Cyc: An instance of #$BiologicalOrder, and a specialization of #$Mammal. Instances of #$CarnivoreOrder are mammals whose teeth are adapted for efficient cutting of meat and tendon. Although instances of #$CarnivoreOrder have teeth adapted for eating meat, not all instances of #$CarnivoreOrder are meat-eaters; #$Bears are omnivorous, while #$PandaBears are usually vegetarians. See also the collection #$Carnivore. NOTE that humans are not classified as Carnivores. bd58f431-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 The Cyc term for the concept 'Carnivore'. A specialization of #$Organism-Whole. Each instance of #$Heterotroph is an organism incapable of manufacturing organic nutrients from inorganic raw materials. All instances of #$Animal are instances of #$Heterotroph, since animals must eat other living things, or parts of living things, in order to get the nutrients they need to live. Other specializations of #$Heterotroph include #$ParasiticOrganism and #$Fungus. Cf. #$Autotroph. bd590331-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A specialization of #$Heterotroph (q.v.) and an instance of #$OrganismClassificationType. Instances of #$Omnivore are those animals whose natural diets consist of both plants (or plant parts or plant-derived products) and animals (or animal parts or animal-derived products). Thus a human vegetarian is still omnivorous, since meat is part of our natural diet. Specializations of this collection include #$Pig, #$Bear, and #$Person. See also #$Herbivore and #$Carnivore. bd58a5e1-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A specialization of #$Organism-Whole. Each instance of #$TerrestrialOrganism is an organism adapted to life on land, out of water. Instances of #$TerrestrialOrganism spend all or most of their time out of the water, either on the land surface or under it. Specializations of #$TerrestrialOrganism include #$Dog, #$Bird, and #$Person. bd590841-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 An instance of #$BiologicalOrder, and a sub-taxon of #$Eutheria. Each instance of #$Primate has a relatively large brain case, an unfused radius and ulna in the forelimbs, an unfused tibia and fibula in the hind limbs, and opposable thumbs. Notable specializations of #$Primate include #$Person, #$Orangutan, #$Gorilla, and #$Baboon. bd58a674-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 Includes Humans and relatively recent ancestors of Humans. Sense 1 of 'hominid' inWordNet: 1. hominid - (a primate of the family Hominidae) hominid hominid1n Similar to DOLCE: agentive-physical-object Intelligence in the sense used here requires the ability to understand language and communicate in a language at least close to the complexity of human language. This category includes only physical objects. At present, the level of intelligence required to belong to this category and be a physical object is possessed only by people. In the future, robots may qualify. Note that an 'Organization' is also intelligent in the sense used here, but is not a PhysicalObject, therefore does not fall into this category. DOLCE: Within Physical objects, a special place have those to which we ascribe generic intentionality (compatibly to Brentano's distinction, the ability to internally represent a description). These are called Agentive, as opposite to Non-agentive. In general, we assume that agentive objects are constituted by non-agentive objects: an organism is constituted by bodily organs, a robot is constituted by some machinery, and so on. Among non-agentive physical objects we have for example houses, bodily organs, pieces of wood, etc. Generic agentivity is defined here in a wide sense as implying representation or conception (to be characterized in a dedicated - but not developed as yet - ontology of mind). A representation or conception only requires intentionality in Brentano's terms (i.e., the ability to represent something to oneself). See also 'rational physical object'. see: Person Agent[Cyc]%agentive-physical-object[DOLCE] COSMO note: 'Agent-NonArtifact' is classified as a subtype of GenericLocation because thoughts are located in the mind of CognitiveAgents, and therefore even SupernaturalBeings need to be a 'location' to be the place where their thoughts are located; this obscure requirement does not affect ordinary reasoning. OPENCYC 1: MAY 23, 2002: The collection of #$Agent-Generics (q.v.) that are not tangible artifacts (cf. #$AgentiveArtifact). #$Agent includes all naturally-occurring agents (e.g. #$Persons and #$Animals), any #$SupernaturalBeings (q.v.), and #$Organizations. Person(Cyc) Human(SUMO) Person is a member of the species Homo Sapiens, and is a synonym of 'Human Being'. As with other categories, this general Type includes all variants, in all contexts, so a fetus is a Person, a dead person is a Person, a fictional person is a Person, and a hypothetical but not yet conceived person is also a Person. The type of Person one is dealing with depends on the context. We typically want to deal with living persons, and that category is provided for convenience as the subType 'LivingPerson'. There is, however, no restriction on whether a Person or LivingPerson exists in the real world or in some fictional or hypothetical world; that distinction is left to the context to disambiguate. Allowing a dead Person to be a Person and also requiring that a Person is a PhysicalObject with mass presents a problem. Where is the mass of a dead Person? To allow this representation, we will permit a person to have 'remains', which would be the physical object that 'is' the Person. The 'remains' do not have to be an identifiable corpse, but can be the trace matter of a person's body, even if too dispersed to be recognizable as a Person's remains (e.g. ashes). A dead Person may 'be located' wherever its remains are, which could be widely dispersed; however, it is unlikely that the 'location' of a dead person will ever be an issue other than when the corpse is in a known grave; it is mentioned here only to provide a clear understanding of the intended meaning. Only a LivingPerson or a Corpse are compact physical objects that are Persons. 'Skeletal remains' may be dispered, and will not necessarily be compact objects. NOTE that in COSMO, when importing assertions created outside of a COSMO-aware system, it is permitted for default reasoning purposes to use the generic type of Organisms as meaning the typical **adult**, and specify attributes for the instances accordingly. If in some application or context it is necessary to deal with abnormal variants of an organism whether immature, diseased, or otherwise impaired, the categories 'ImmatureOrganism' or 'AbnormalOrganism' can be used. If one needs to make provision for abnormal (or dead) organisms, the default mechanisms must be used with extreme care. The subtype of 'LivingPerson' should be considered, though that category still includes fictional and hypothetical persons.. OPENCYC 1: MAY 23, 2002 The collection of all human beings. Something is an instance of #$Person just in case it is a member of the species Homo Sapiens, and thus #$Person is an instance of #$BiologicalSpecies in the #$BiologyMt. Persons are the most intelligent kind of #$Primate, and the only kind known to be naturally capable of speaking a language. #$Person excludes non-human legal persons, who are, however, included in the collection #$LegalAgent. SUMO: Modern man, the only remaining species of the Homo genus. COSMO note: the superfluous parent Type 'Thing' was added so as to make this important Type easily visible by drill-down in the hierarchy. Corresponds to sense 1 of 'person', noun sense 1 of 'human' and sense 1 of 'human being' in WordNet: WN 'person' 1. (7229) person, individual, someone, somebody, mortal, soul - (a human being; there was too much for one person to do') WN 'human' 1. (5) homo, man, human being, human - (any living or extinct member of the family Hominidae characterized by superior intelligence, articulate speech, and erect carriage) person person person1n human human1n human being human being1n This is the collection of all activities which are performed in a state of consciousness, that is, the animal performing the action is not sleeping, in a coma, or otherwise unconscious. a8eb2b06-d712-41d6-8443-9a24c2022ade An attribute of Actions that specifies that an Agent performed the Action with the purpose of achieving the result expected or accomplished. This contrasts with actions that are accidental, unconscious, or automatic (such as Consciousness, which is an Action in COSMO). There is only one relevant sense in Random Hose Webster; 1. done with intention or on purpose; intended: an intentional insult. The 3 WordNet senses of 'intentional' are difficult to tell apart, except that part of sense 2 in which 'designed' is used appears to have a different meaning. This type includes all 3 WordNet senses, but does not include the sense of 'designed' that is represented by the examples. 'willful' is sometimes used in a similar sense, as indicated by the quote for sense 1 of 'willful' in RHW: 1. deliberate, voluntary, or intentional: The coroner ruled the death willful murder. . . . however, the example for 'willful' in WN sense 3 of 'intentional' is a different sense, corresponding to sense 2 of 'willful' in RHW and sense 2 in WN: 2. unreasonably stubborn or headstrong; self-willed. Therefore WN sense 3 of 'intentional' is a mixed sense In COSMO 'Willful' represents an attribute that includes not only intention, but defiance (knowing that someone else objects), so is a subtype. This corresponds to all 3 adjective senses of 'intentional', adjective sense 1 of 'deliberate', adjective sense 2 of 'knowing' and in WordNet: 1. (2) deliberate, intentional, knowing - (by conscious design or purpose; 'intentional damage'; 'a knowing attempt to defraud'; 'a willful waste of time') 2. designed, intentional - (done or made or performed with purpose and intent; 'style...is more than the deliberate and designed creation'- Havelock Ellis; 'games designed for all ages'; 'well-designed houses') 3. intentional, willful, wilful - (done by design; 'the insult was intentional'; 'willful disobedience') Corresponds to adjective sense 1 of 'conscious' and sense 2 of 'witting' in WordNet, and partly to sense 2 which is a mixed sense; 1. (7) conscious, witting - (intentionally conceived; 'a conscious effort to speak more slowly'; 'a conscious policy') conscious intentional intentional1adj conscious conscious1adj witting witting2adj willful willful1adj wilful wilful1adj deliberate deliberate1adj knowing knowing2adj A specialization of both #$Action and #$AtLeastPartiallyMentalEvent. Each instance of #$PurposefulAction is an action consciously, volitionally, and purposefully done by (see #$performedBy) at least one actor. In SUMO, equivalent to 'IntentionalProcess'. SUMO: A Process (Event) that has a specific purpose for the CognitiveAgent who performs it. bd589e3f-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 'Intellect' is a MentalObject that is the part of the Mind in which the processes of Thinking and Reasoning (as contrasted with Feelings) are 'located'. 'Intellect' is not a a PhysicalObject, but may be considered as an informal way to refer to the parts of the Brain that are responsible for thinking rationally as contrasted with emotions. CAVEAT: a 'MentalObject' is an Object created by a Mind. Here, an Intellect is part of a Mind and is a MentalObject, suggesting that Minds create themselves. Not clear if this is a logical problem. Each Intellect is part of some Mind, but the restriction value is the type 'Mind' and does not require that the 'Mind' be reified. Longman's vocabulary has 'mind' but not 'intellect', and the term 'mind' is probably used there (in one sense) in the same sense as 'Intellect' in COSMO. Corresponds to noun sense 1 of 'intellect' and sense 7 of 'mind' in WordNet: 1. (5) mind, intellect - (knowledge and intellectual ability; "he reads to improve his mind"; "he has a keen intellect") mind intellect intellect1n mind mind7n (starts ?TempThing1 ?TempThing2) means that ?TempThing1 and ?TempThing2 are both TemporalThings (TimeIntervals or Events) that have the same initial TimePoint and that ?TempThing1 ends before ?TempThing2. This is a generalization of the SUMO 'starts' relation. SUMO: (starts ?INTERVAL1 ?INTERVAL2) means that ?INTERVAL1 and ?INTERVAL2 are both TimeIntervals that have the same initial TimePoint and that ?INTERVAL1 ends before ?INTERVAL2. typicallyStarts relates one EventType to another EventType when the first EventType usually is the beginning part of the second EventType, or an attempt to initiate the second EventType. For example, a 'Calling' event will typically start an OralConversation. This is a relation on prototypical Events, so it is not necessary that a majority of instances of the first type result in some oinstance of the second type - attempts of type 'E1' may fail more often than not, and still satisfy the relation {?E1 typicallyStarts ?E2}. typicallyFinishes relates one EventType to another EventType when the first EventType usually is the ending part of the second EventType. For example, a 'Catching' (of prey) will usually be the final phase of a 'Pursuing'. In SUMO, named 'earlier'. SUMO(earlier ?INTERVAL1 ?INTERVAL2) means that the TimeInterval ?INTERVAL1 ends before the TimeInterval ?INTERVAL2 begins. NOTE: in COSMO, a TimePoint is a type of TimeInterval, so one may use occurredEarlierThan for either TimePoints or TimeIntervals, or for mixtures of TimeIntervals and TimePoints, but occursBefore can only be used for TimePoints. Corresponds to parts of verb sense 1 and 3 of 'precede' in WordNet, where the interpretation of the thing preceding is coreced to an Event or state. 1. (9) predate, precede, forego, forgo, antecede, antedate - (be earlier in time; go back further; 'Stone tools precede bronze tools') 3. (3) precede, come before - (be the predecessor of; 'Bill preceded John in the long line of Susan's husbands') precede precede1v precede3v (occurredLaterThan ?TT1 ?TT2) means that the TemporalThing ?TT1 starts after the TemporalThing ?TT2 begins. No overlap is permitted. The axiomatic description has a circularity to it that indicates its primitive nature: (=> (and (occurredLaterThan ?TT2 ?TT1) (hasEndingTimePoint ?TT2 ?EndingTimePoint)) (exists (?FutureTimePoint) (and (inst ?FutureTimePoint FutureTimePoint) (occursBefore ?EndingTimePoint ?FutureTimePoint)))) NOTE: in COSMO, a TimePoint is a type of TimeInterval, so one may use occurredLaterThan for either TimePoints or TimeIntervals, or mixtures of the two. Corresponds to verb sense 2 of 'follow' in WordNet: 2. (50) postdate, follow - (be later in time; 'Tuesday always follows Monday') follow follow follow2v co-occurredWith specifies that the beginning TimePoints for the two TemporalThings related are identical, and that the ending TimePoints are also identical. This allows one to specify beginning and ending TimePoints of some TemporalThing by reference to another TemporalThing. NOTE: in COSMO, a TimePoint is a type of TimeInterval, so one may use co-occurredWith for either TimePoints or TimeIntervals, or for other TemporalThings like Events.. In SUMO, called 'before'. SUMO: (before ?POINT1 ?POINT2) means that ?POINT1 precedes ?POINT2 on the universal timeline. For time intervals, use 'occurredEarlierThan' Corresponds to verb sense 2 of 'follow' in WordNet: 2. (50) postdate, follow - (be later in time; 'Tuesday always follows Monday') follow follow follow2v A FutureTimeInterval is a TimeInterval that occurs after some TimePointOfReference, on the universal time line.. Procedure[SUMO]_Method[DOLCE] Procedure is the most general Type that represents a sequence of actions that an agent (person, organization, automaton) might take to achieve some specific goal state. Each known Procedure is a resource that an Agent has a a possible tool to use when confronted with a Goal, in the manner of 'cause-based reasoning': IF I want to achieve this goal-state AND the current state is S, AND procedure P345 is expected to achieve that goal state from that starting state AND the resources (including time)are available to execute procedure P345 AND no negative consequences (with a cost greater than the benefit of achieving goal-state) will result from executing procedure P345 THEN execute P345. . Procedures will form the ontological analogue of 'procedural memory' in people. It is not required that a Procedure A Procedure may be required to verify an Assertion, and such verification procedures are an important part of actual 'understanding' and 'meaning' for assertions. Called: Procedure (in SUMO); Method (in DOLCE) DOLCE: A description that contains a specification to do, realize, behave, etc. Subclasses are plan, technique, practice, project, etc. A sequence-dependent specification. Some examples are industrial processes, ComputerPrograms, finite-state machines, cooking recipes, musical scores, conference schedules, driving directions, and the scripts of plays and movies. In Cyc the class 'DevisedStructuredActivity' has some of the same elements, but a Procedure is a specialization of that category, being that set of activities that have more required order in the execution of the actions specified. This distinction shows up in the category of 'Game' being a subtype of DevisedStructuredActivity' while an industrial process would be a subtype of 'Procedure'. Corresponds to noun sense 1 of 'method, sense 1 of 'procedure', and sense 2 of 'means' and sense 2 of 'way' in WordNet: WN 'method': 1. (112) method - (a way of doing something, especially a systematic way; implies an orderly logical arrangement (usually in steps)) WN 'means' 1. (55) means, agency, way - (how a result is obtained or an end is achieved; 'a means of control'; 'an example is the best agency of instruction'; 'the true way to success') WN 'procedure' 1. (41) procedure, process - (a particular course of action intended to achieve a result; "the procedure of obtaining a driver's license"; "it was a process of trial and error") means way means means2n way way2n method method1n procedure procedure1n Plan[SUMO]_Plan[DOLCE] DOLCE: A plan is a method for executing or performing a procedure or a stage of a procedure.A plan must use both at least one role played by an agent, and at least one task.Finally, a plan has a goal as proper part, and can also have regulations and other descriptions as proper parts. SUMO: A specification of a sequence of Processes which is intended to satisfy a specified purpose at some future time. A RelativeTime is any TimeTinterval or TimePoint whose location on the Universal Time Line is specified relative to some other TemporalThing. The times 'Now', 'Tomorrow' or 'Sunday' are such RelativeTimes. A TimePointOfreference is a TimePoint that is used to refer to the aspectual attribute of some Situation (i.e. SituationProcessEventOrState), i.e. an Event will be present, past, or future depending on the TimePointOfReference in the MentalObject that refers to that Situation. An Intention is MentalObject within a CognitiveAgent that refers to some future Action that the agent intends to participate in, in some capacity. The representation of this notion is complex in OWL, since it involves specifying two related things: there is a future Action; and the Agent will participate in that Action (of course all Future Actions are contingent, but *if* the *specific* FutureAction that is referenced occurs, the Agent *will* be a participant). Note that the Agent does not have to desire the FutureAction to occur - the Agent may be *forced* to participate, and have an Intention to participate, because not to participate would entail some undesirable consequences, which might be trivial (disappointing someone) or serious (loss of the Agent's life). This is one disctinciton between an Intention and a Goal - a 'Goal' in COSMO references a FutureSituation that the Agent desires to happen - for the Agent's own purposes. An Agent may have an Intention to participate in some FutureAction only because it is an imposed Obligation. hasTemporalLocation is a general relation that can be used to specify *when* events occurred or physical objects existed. This relation has as its domain the union of PhysicalObject and TemporalThing, and that union serves much the same purpose as the OpenCyc 'TemporalThing', which has been redefined for COSMO. The TemporalLocation will be a TimeInterval (in the universal timeline of our world or some alternative reality), which in COSMO may be a single TimePoint. For Events, the more specific relation 'occurredInTimeInterval' should be used. NOTE that to have a TemporalLocation does not mean to fill that tempopral location - an Event may have a particular Year as a TemporalLocation, but may have occurred only on a particular day of that year. Thus we may also specify that some Process has a particular TemporalLocation, without being precise about when it started and when it ended. NOTE the distinction between TemporalThing and PhysicalObject, both of which *may* have a TemporalLocation. A TemporalThing *must* have a TemporalLocation, that is the essence of its definition. A PhysicalObject *may* have a TemporalLocation - the ontology may choose to specify when it existed, but does not have to. If an instance of PhysicalObject is also made an instance of TimeSlice, the TimeSlice should have beginning and end time points that fit within the TemporalLocation. A FutureSituation is a Situation, Process, Event, or State that has not yet happened, i.e. that still lies in the Future. Obviously, instances of this category must have some base time as a referent, since Events that are future at one time will be past at another time. But this category is useful to make clear the meaning of some Mental entities that reference future events, such as Goals. Each instance of 'GranularityValue' is a QuantitativeAttributeValue that specifies the size (in some units) of an Entity that can be divided in two parts, both of which are of the same type as the starting whole. A measure of a quantity of time, *not* a specific time point on the univeresal time line. COSMO note: we distinguish TimeMeasures - physical measures that relate to time (timeintervals or time points) - from the TimePositions - the actual locations in our real time. The latter are classified under 'TemporalLocation'. The usage of this Type here differs from that in SUMO. For DateTime see 'TemporalLocation'. SUMO: The class of temporal durations (instances of TimeDuration) and positions of TimePoints and TimeIntervals along the universal timeline (instances of TimePosition). A specialization of #$AtLeastPartiallyMentalEvent. Each instance of #$CompositePhysicalAndMentalEvent is an event that involves some mental event(s), as well as some interaction between physical objects. Each instance will thus have at least one #$PhysicalEvent as a sub-event. (It may or may not itself be an instance of #$PhysicalEvent, depending on whether it occurs at a specific spatial location.) Examples include a news broadcast program, a court trial, someone inheriting property, someone writing a letter, a physical examination, and a charity ball. Notable specializations of this collection include #$PurposefulPhysicalAction and #$SensoryEvent. bd588d27-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 The collection of #$CompositePhysicalAndMentalEvents that are performed purposively (see #$performedBy). This collection is the collection-intersection of #$PurposefulAction and #$CompositePhysicalAndMentalEvent. Since each instance of #$PurposefulPhysicalAction is also an instance of #$CompositePhysicalAndMentalEvent, each instance has both a mental and a physical component. Driving a car would be an instance of #$PurposefulPhysicalAction since it involves mental and physical functioning on the part of the performing agent and is done purposively. Crashing a car, conversely, would not normally be an instance (unless the driver purposefully caused the crash). beb39562-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 COSMO note: use 'hasStartingPlace' and 'hasEndingPlace' or some subproperty to specify the 'places' (abstract or concrete) from which the thing being transferred begins and ends during the GeneralizedTransfer. Cyc: A specialization of #$Event. Each instance of #$GeneralizedTransfer is an event in which something (tangible or intangible) is transferred from one 'place' to another. #$GeneralizedTransfer includes changes in physical location, in ownership or possession, transfer of information, and propagation of wave phenomena through space. See also the related predicate #$transferredThing, and the specializations of this collection. bd588eb6-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 go go go1v A collection of events. Each instance of #$TransferIn is a #$GeneralizedTransfer (q.v.) for which there is a well-defined thing that it is a transfer to (see #$to-Generic), but not necessarily a well-defined thing that it is a transfer from (see #$from-Generic). Subcollections of #$TransferIn include #$Collecting, #$GainingUserRights, and #$AccessingAnIBT. At the end of a #$TransferIn, the thing transferred (see #$transferredThing) is in some sense located at the #$to-Generic. Non- examples of #$TransferIn include instances of #$AbandoningSomething (when there is no prospective owner) and of #$IBTGeneration (when the information may go to various unspecified locations). bd631969-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 COSMO note: GeneralizedTransfer in COSMO is required to have an origin and destination, so this Cyc type has been reinterpreted as a subtype of Event. Cyc: A specialization of #$GeneralizedTransfer. #$TransferOut includes all instances of #$GeneralizedTransfer in which some object plays the role of #$from-Generic, but in which there may or may not be any object playing the role of #$to-Generic. At the start of a #$TransferOut, the object playing the role of #$transferredThing is 'located' at the object playing the role of #$from-Generic. The collection #$TransferOut includes, among other things, all instances of the collections #$Emission, #$LosingUserRights, and #$DistributionEvent. Negative examples of #$TransferOut include some instances of #$AppropriatingSomething (when there is no previous owner) and some instances of #$Hearing (when the sounds may come from various unspecified locations). bdc16356-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 'hasEndingPlace' relates a GeneralizedTransfer to the 'Place' to which the transferred thing is transferred. The companion relation 'hasStartingPlace' specifies the 'place' from which it originates. Since 'GeneralizedTransfer' is a broad type including transfers of abstract thing (e.g. information) as well as PhysicalObjects, the 'place' of origin or destination can be abstract as well. More specialized relations can be more specific as to the kind of 'place' for origin and destination of a GeneralizedTransfer. This corresponds to Cyc relation 'to-Generic': Cyc: (#$to-Generic GEN-TRANS THING) means that the #$GeneralizedTransfer GEN-TRANS has a destination or endpoint THING. Because #$GeneralizedTransfer covers many kinds of transfer, both physical and abstract, this endpoint can be of many types. In a #$Translocation it is a #$PartiallyTangible location (see #$toLocation), while in #$TransferringPossession it is an #$Agent (see #$toPossessor). #$to-Generic encompasses all kinds of endpoints; as a rule, it is better to use more the specific predicates when possible. This relation can be used to express the concept 'into' when something (concrete or abstract) is placed into something else. bfd50815-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 into 'hasStartingPlace' relates a GeneralizedTransfer to the 'Place' from which the transferred thing originates. The companion relation 'hasEndingPlace' specifies the 'place' to which it is transferred. Since 'GeneralizedTransfer' is a broad type including transfers of abstract thing (e.g. information) as well as PhysicalObjects, the 'place' of origin or destination can be abstract as well. More specialized relations can be more specific as to the kind of 'place' for origin and destination of a GeneralizedTransfer. This corresponds to Cyc relation 'from-Generic': Cyc: (#$from-Generic GEN-TRANS THING) means that the #$GeneralizedTransfer GEN-TRANS has an origin or starting point THING. Because #$GeneralizedTransfer covers many kinds of transfer, both physical and abstract, this starting point can be of many types. In a #$Translocation it is a #$PartiallyTangible location (see #$fromLocation), while in #$TransferringPossession it is an #$Agent (see #$fromPossessor). #$from-Generic encompasses all kinds of starting points; as a rule, it is better to use more the specific predicates when possible. c00cab61-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 hadTransferredItem relates a GeneralizedTransfer event to the thing transferred during the Event. Note that more than one thing may be transferred in an Event, and in particular each Transaction has at least two things transferred. This is a Case role for the GeneralizedTransfer event, which includes specializations such as Communication or property transfer. Things that are tranferred may be abstract or tangible, so the range is not restricted. A specialization of #$GeneralizedTransfer. Each instance of #$InformationTransferEvent is an event in which information is transferred from a source (#$informationOrigin) to one or more destinations (#$informationDestination), where the source and the various destinations are either intelligent agents or #$InformationBearingThings (IBTs). Examples include reading a book (transfer of information from the book to the reader), saying something to someone (transfer of information from the speaker to the listener), machine translation (transfer of information from an encoded IBT in the source language to an encoded IBT in the target language), OCR scanning (transfer of information from a visual information source to another IBT in a different format), carving initials in a tree (transfer of information from an agent to an IBT), and making a speech (transfer of information from an agent to other agents). See also the specialization #$InformationTransferPhysicalEvent. NOTE that information can be transferred from a person's mind to a piece of paper, so the destination of the transfer does not have to be an IntelligentAgent, and an InformationTransfer does not have to be a 'Communication'. COSMO note; why is information transfer not always a PhysicalEvent in Cyc see 'InformationTransferPhysicalEvent'? Perhaps so that spirit communication can be included? In SUMO the appproximate equivalent of 'ContentBearingProcess'. SUMO: ('ContentBearingProcess') Any Process, for example ManualHumanLanguage, which may contain a Proposition. bd589f07-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 The transfer of information from one or more IntentionalAgents or Automatons (e.g. automated communications devices) to one or more other IntentionalAgents. NOTE that a Communication need not be linguistic, nor necessarily symbolic (such as gesturing). It can be an Action, such as putting on camouflage, that is intended to convey some information to another agent. So this is a broad range of actions, but there has to be an intention to convey information - inadvertently conveying information is not a Communication in this sense. NOTE that although Communication in SUMO is a SocialOccurence, in COSMO 'SocialOccurence' is restricted to humans, while Communication can be accomplished also by non-human IntentionalAgents. Some subtypes of Communication will be SocialOccurrences. COSMO NOTE: that 'Communication' in COSMO is a subtype of 'InformationTransferEvent' in which some IntelligentAgent must be the intented recipient. Not every creation of an Information BearingThing (IBT) is a 'Communication', but jotting a note for one's own purposes is a Communication, even if no one else is intended to see it, because there is an intended recipient - but the creator and recipient are the same agent. Communication(SUMO) communication-event(DOLCE) SUMO: ('Communication') A SocialInteraction that involves the transfer of information between two or more CognitiveAgents. Note that Communication is closely related to, but essentially different from, ContentDevelopment. The latter involves the creation or modification of a ContentBearingObject, while Communication is the transfer of information for the purpose of conveying a message. SUMO partitions 'Communication' into: Stating Supposing Directing Committing Expressing Declaring. SUMO: relatedInternalConcept Communication ContentDevelopment. In Cyc called 'Communicating': Cyc: A specialization of #$PurposefulAction and characterized by one or more #$InformationTransferEvent sub-events. Each instance of #$Communicating is an event in which the transfer of information between or among agents is a focal action; communicating is the main purpose and/or goal in the event. That may be contrasted with events which involve communication but wherein the focus is different, e.g., playing cards (wherein the progressive actions - and winning - of the game are focal). Since #$Communicating is a specialization of #$PurposefulAction, each #$Communicating event must be intentional on the part of the #$communicatorOfInfo; it may or may not be intentional on the part of the agent playing the #$infoCommunicatedTo role. Hence, a speaker on a soapbox haranguing an indifferent crowd is performing an instance of #$Communicating. In contrast, Juliet soliloquizing on her balcony, unaware that Romeo is listening to her, is not #$Communicating; rather Romeo (and Juliet, unaware) are engaged in an #$Eavesdropping. Communicating may be either a one-way or a two-way transfer of information (cf. #$CommunicationAct-Single, #$MultiDirectionalCommunication). Every event belonging to #$Communicating contains at least one transfer of information between at least two agents who participate in the event. (Note that the latter requirement excludes reading and writing from #$Communicating, when those events are just the private accessing or generating of information.) Communicating may be specialized in various ways, such as, by the method or medium used (e.g., #$AudioCommunicating, #$NonVerbalCommunicating, #$FaceToFacePresenceCommunicating); by the type of information involved (e.g., #$MakingAnAgreement); by the purpose of the communication (e.g., #$Teaching, #$Negotiating); by the agents involved (e.g., #$IntraOrganizationCommunication, #$StageProduction). Examples of #$Communicating include a symphony performance, an email message, a telephone call, a speech, a handshake, issuing a traffic ticket - all of which normally, and focally, involve communication between two or more agents. bd589f07-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 The SUMO term for the general event of 'Communication'. A 'Meaning' is the set of Propositions which form the logical content of what a speaker intended to convey in some Communication. The restriction requires that the communication be specified; this type represents the content of the communication. The meaning of 'meaning' is a subject of much debate. For this purpose, this type assumes that there is a set of logical propositions in the speakers mind that the speaker intends to represent in a communication; that set of Propositions is what is represented by this type. Corresponds to noun senses 1 and 2 of 'meaning' in WordNet: 1. (48) meaning, significance, signification, import - (the message that is intended or expressed or signified; 'what is the meaning of this sentence'; 'the significance of a red traffic light'; 'the signification of Chinese characters'; 'the import of his announcement was ambiguous') 2. (32) meaning, substance - (the idea that is intended; 'What is the meaning of this proverb?') isDesiredIn relates a goal or Rule or communication to the future situation that the agent with the Goal (or who created the Rule or Communication) wants to make happen. A DesiredFutureSituation is a FutureSituation, (a Process, Event, or State) that has not yet happened, and is desired by some CognitiveAgent. The desire will be represented in some Desire, Goal or Rule. Points to a string with axioms that include reference to the domain entity. (UAX: SUMAX-25) (<=> (disjoint ?CLASS1 ?CLASS2) (and (instance ?CLASS1 NonNullSet) (instance ?CLASS2 NonNullSet) (forall (?INST) (not (and (instance ?INST ?CLASS1) (instance ?INST ?CLASS2)))))) Classes are disjoint only if they share no instances, i.e. just in case the result of applying IntersectionFn to them is empty. SUMO - 155 points from an instance of Synonym to a string that is the term which is synonymous to the base concept. The term should represent the synonym in its natural form, whether capitalized, with spaces, apostrophes, etc. A superfluous relation for testing. A Sign is something that refers to something other than itself; it may be a single entity or a group of entities. It can be an Object, an Event, a Process, or an Attribute. This is a very general category. A Sign may be Physical or Abstract or Mental. 'Sign' is a very general concept, and is used primarily through its specialized subtypes. A physical phenomenon (smoke) can be a sign (of a smoke-producing process), and an AbstractSymbolicObject such as the abstract string 'cat' can be a sign that refers to some animals in the real world. isaSignOf relates a specific Sign or SignType to something to which it refers in some way - perhaps by providing evidence os something, or merely A SignObject is a PhysicalObject that is a Sign of something other than itself. It is not necessarily an Artifact.. isaSymptomOf relates a Symptom (a Sign of some abnormality) to the AbnormalCondition of which it is a sign. A Trace is one or more Signs that relate to ordered states of some Event or FunctionalProcess. A sequence of footprints in the mud can be a Trace of the event of some animal walking on that ground; a sequence of abstract symbols, stored in one of more computers, can provide a Trace of some computational or reasoning process such as one carried out in the computer. 'Unusual' the property that of something that is outside the usual range (of properties, property values, etc) for a thing of that type. See also the subtypes 'Strange', 'Abnormal', and 'Extraordinary'. Includes all 3 senses of 'unusual' and both senses of 'atypical' in WordNet; WN 'unusual' 1. (24) unusual - (not usual or common or ordinary; 'a scene of unusual beauty'; 'a man of unusual ability'; 'cruel and unusual punishment'; 'an unusual meteorite') 2. (1) strange, unusual - (being definitely out of the ordinary and unexpected; slightly odd or even a bit weird; 'a strange exaltation that was indefinable'; 'a strange fantastical mind'; 'what a strange sense of humor she has') 3. (1) unusual - (not commonly encountered; 'two-career families are no longer unusual') WN 'atypical' 1. (1) atypical, untypical - (not representative of a group, class, or type; 'a group that is atypical of the target audience'; 'a class of atypical mosses'; 'atypical behavior is not the accepted type of response that we expect from children') 2. atypical, irregular - (deviating from normal expectations; somewhat odd, strange, or abnormal; 'these days large families are atypical'; 'atypical clinical findings'; 'atypical pneumonia'; 'highly irregular behavior') unusual unusual unusual1adj unusual2adj unusual3adj atypical atypical1adj atypical2adj 'HighlyUnusual' is an intensive form of 'Unusual' - unusual to a high degree. 'Surprising' the property that of something that is not expected, and therefore causes the Feeling of Surprise. This is often relative to a particular agent's expectations; but things may be surprising to everyone. Corresponds to sense 1 of 'surpsrising' in WordNet; 1. (11) surprising - (causing surprise or wonder or amazement; 'the report shows a surprising lack of hard factual data'; 'leaped up with surprising agility'; 'she earned a surprising amount of money') surprising surprising1adj An attribute value that is one of at least two values expressing a range of values that have some linear ordering, and may overlap. The protypical ordering is high-medium-low, but many such ordered valuies can exist. The ordering can be represented in OWL as a list. As of v0.51 rev 685, the values are not thus ordered. @ToDo - create orderings for Intensive values. . Each subtype of 'GoodnessValue' is an EvaluativeAttribute that expresses a judgment regarding the degree to which the thing evaluated is beneficial for the purposes against which it is judged. The subtypes are ranked from most good to least good, with some overlap as: 'TheBest' 'Outstanding' 'Excellent' 'VeryGood' 'Good' 'Fair' 'So-so' 'Mediocre' 'Bad' 'VeryBad' 'Execrable' 'TheWorst' There are many degrees of goodness, and the lesser degrees are not necessarily salient, so this is not a subtype of 'Salient'. This corresponds to adjective sense 1 of 'fair' in WordNet: 1. (190) good - (having desirable or positive qualities especially those suitable for a thing specified; 'good news from the hospital'; 'a good report card'; 'when she was good she was very very good'; 'a good knife is one good for cutting'; 'this stump will make a good picnic table'; 'a good check'; 'a good joke'; 'a good exterior paint'; 'a good secretary'; 'a good dress for the office') The highest degreee of Goodness. A broad EvaluativeAttribute that expresses a judgment that the thing evaluated is in some sense 'Desirable'. This differs form 'Good' in that it suggests that the thing thus described can be either obtained (Object) or performed (Action), and that there is some option on someone's part whether or not to have it. Corresponds to sense 1 of 'desirable' in RHW: 1. worth having or wanting; pleasing, excellent, or fine: a desirable apartment. Corresponds to sense 1 of 'desirable' in WordNet: 1. (16) desirable - (worth having or seeking or achieving; 'a desirable job'; 'computer with many desirable features'; 'a desirable outcome') desirable desirable desirable1adj A broad EvaluativeAttribute that expresses a judgment that the thing evaluated, if obtained, would be of negative value; the opposite of 'Desirable'. In COSMO there is a middle ground between being 'Desirable' and 'Undesirable', so being 'not desirable' is necessary but not a sufficient condition. Corresponds approximately to adjective sense 1 of 'undesirable' in WordNet: 1. (2) undesirable -- (not desirable; 'undesirable impurities in steel'; 'legislation excluding undesirable aliens') undesirable undesirable1adj A even higher degree of Goodness than 'Excellent'; extremely good, better than the best within any local group. Corresponds to adjective sense 1 of 'outstanding' in WordNet: 1. (5) outstanding - (distinguished from others in excellence; 'did outstanding work in human relations'; 'an outstanding war record') outstanding outstanding1adj A higher degree of Goodness than 'VeryGood'. Corresponds to adjective sense 1 of 'excellent' in WordNet: 1. (19) excellent, first-class, fantabulous - (of the highest quality; 'made an excellent speech'; 'the school has excellent teachers'; 'a first-class mind') excellent excellent excellent1adj A higher degree of Goodness than 'good'. A very broad EvaluativeAttribute that expresses a judgment that the thing evaluated is beneficial for the purposes against which it is judged. The purposes may be those of the person doing the judging, or those of someone else or of some group. Each attribution of 'good' must have some purpose as the criterion of 'goodness' NOTE that the adjective 'good' is represented by the instance of Adjective 'ENG_good' There are many degrees of goodness, and the lesser degrees are not necessarily salient, so this is not a subtype of 'Salient'. This corresponds to adjective sense 1 of 'good in WordNet: 1. (190) good - (having desirable or positive qualities especially those suitable for a thing specified; 'good news from the hospital'; 'a good report card'; 'when she was good she was very very good'; 'a good knife is one good for cutting'; 'this stump will make a good picnic table'; 'a good check'; 'a good joke'; 'a good exterior paint'; 'a good secretary'; 'a good dress for the office') good good good1adj An attribute value that expresses a judgment that the thing evaluated is slightly better than average, but not 'Good'. . An average degree of Goodness; better than 'Poor' and worse than 'Fair'. An attribute value that expresses a judgment that the thing evaluated is slightly worse than average, but not 'Good'. . A very broad EvaluativeAttribute that expresses a judgment that the thing evaluated is deleterious for the purposes against which it is judged. The purposes may be those of the person doing the judging, or those of someone else or of some group. Each attribution of 'bad' must have some purpose as the criterion of 'goodness'. It is approximately equivalent to 'undesirable'. This includes ethical as well as pragmatic 'bad'. There are many degrees of badness, and the lesser degrees are not necessarily salient, so this is not a subtype of 'Salient' This corresponds to adjective sense 1 of 'bad' in WordNet: 1. (51) bad - (having undesirable or negative qualities; 'a bad report card'; 'his sloppy appearance made a bad impression'; 'a bad little boy'; 'clothes in bad shape'; 'a bad cut'; 'bad luck'; 'the news was very bad'; 'the reviews were bad'; 'the pay is bad'; 'it was a bad light for reading'; 'the movie was a bad choice') A lower degreee of Goodness than 'Bad'. This is specifically for badness in quality generally, or for adequacy of performance of a task; this sense is not for quality of manners or morality. The applicable WirdNet usages would be: 'abominable workmanship'; 'terrible handwriting'; 'an awful voice' 'a painful performance' Corresponds to part of adjective sense 1 of 'awful' in WordNet: WN 'awful'. For the sense of unpleasant, use 'Awful' 1. (10) atrocious, abominable, awful, dreadful, painful, terrible, unspeakable - (exceptionally bad or displeasing; 'atrocious taste'; 'abominable workmanship'; 'an awful voice'; 'dreadful manners'; 'a painful performance'; 'terrible handwriting'; 'an unspeakable odor came sweeping into the room') awful awful awful A lower degreee of Goodness than 'VeryBad'; extremely bad. The lowest degreee of Goodness. Abnormal is a property that can be assigned to something that is not just unusual, but unusual in a negative way. For the sense of 'highly unusual' without the implication of being bad, use 'Unusual'. For unusual and suprosingly so, use 'strange'. Includes adjective sense 2 and part of sense 1 of 'abnormal' in WordNet, but no WordNet sense specifically specifies the 'bad' meaning of 'abnormal' in this sense. 1. (1) abnormal - (not normal; not typical or usual or regular or conforming to a norm; 'abnormal powers of concentration'; 'abnormal amounts of rain'; 'abnormal circumstances'; 'an abnormal interest in food') 2. abnormal - (departing from the normal in e.g. intelligence and development; 'they were heartbroken when they learned their child was abnormal'; 'an abnormal personality') 'Strange' is a property that can be assigned to something that is not just unusual, but surprisingly so; unusual in an unexpected way; odd. For the sense of 'unusual' but still only deviating somewhat from normal in a property for which deviations are known to occur, use 'Unusual'. Corresponds to part of adjective sense 1 of 'strange' , and sense 4 of 'odd' (which is also sense 1 of 'curious' and sense 1 of 'peculiar), in WordNet: WN 'strange' 1. (42) strange, unusual - (being definitely out of the ordinary and unexpected; slightly odd or even a bit weird; 'a strange exaltation that was indefinable'; 'a strange fantastical mind'; 'what a strange sense of humor she has') WN 'odd' 4. (1) curious, funny, odd, peculiar, queer, rum, rummy, singular -- (beyond or deviating from the usual or expected; 'a curious hybrid accent'; 'her speech has a funny twang'; 'they have some funny ideas about war'; 'had an odd name'; 'the peculiar aromatic odor of cloves'; 'something definitely queer about this town'; 'what a rum fellow'; 'singular behavior') strange strange strange4adj odd odd4adj curious curious1adj peculiar peculiar1adj Extraordinary is a property that can be assigned to something that is highly unusual, and in a positive (good) way. For the sense of 'highly unusual' without the implication of being Good use 'HighlyUnusual'. Corresponds to adjective sense 1 of 'extraordinary' in WordNet: 1. (12) extraordinary - (beyond what is ordinary or usual; highly unusual or exceptional or remarkable; 'extraordinary authority'; 'an extraordinary achievement'; 'her extraordinary beauty'; 'enjoyed extraordinary popularity'; 'an extraordinary capacity for work'; 'an extraordinary session of the legislature') A specialization of #$Situation. Each instance of #$SystemCondition is a state or process undergone by some natural or artificial system (for example, an organism or a computer network). The state or process in question may be either normal or abnormal. A typical instance of #$SystemCondition is a state or process that has important temporal aspects, or affects the system's condition for a significant period of time, such that the condition may be thought of as an 'episode' in the existence of the system, or even a permanent aspect of the system. COSMO note: this Cyc category is interpreted as a PersistentState (a subtype of Event), meaning that the situation stays constant over some period of time. If the condition is some process (rotating), then the process should be constant over that interval, e.g. the rate of turn should be constant, within the limits of interest to the ontologist. c1346159-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 An AbnormalCondition is a SystemCondition which is not normal (i.e. unusual) for the system in which it is observed. It is worse than the usual condition (i.e. undesirable), not just different - but it is not necessarily a malfunction. Chipped paint on some object would be an AbnormalCondition, and a Disease would also be. A Symptom is a Sign that is also a SituationProcessEventOrState, and which provides evidence of an abnormal condition.. A Record is an abstract sequence of symbols (usually linguistic) representing a sequence of events that occurred. For example, a sequence of abstract symbols, stored in one of more computers, can provide a Trace of some computational or reasoning process such as one carried out in the computer. As an Artifact, it has to have an IntelligentAgent as creator - for traces generated by a computer, that Agent will be the programmer or, if sufficiently autonomous, the computer itself - or both. A ReasoningRecord is a Record of some process of Reasoning. It will usually be a process of Reasoning used in a Computer, but could be a record of a person's reasoning.. isAheadOf relates one location to another location that is behind the first by some spatial interval. 'behind' and 'ahead' imply some direction, but the direction is not specified here. Often the implied direction is a direction of movement for the thing that is 'behind', i.e. a person in a car travelling on a highway may say that a city is 'fifty miles ahead', or another car on the highway is 'fifty feet ahead'. The relations specified by 'ahead' are inherently multiple arity - including two locations (or objects) and some reference to the direction. In an OWL binary formalism, it would be necessary to use {?Obj2 isAheadOf ?Obj1} with {{?Obj2 and ?Obj1} isLocatedAt ?Path} Where {?Obj2 and ?Obj1} is a pair of objects (or locations). But even here, it is not necessarily clear that the 'ahead' refers to that particular ?Path. The full description of 'ahead' should use multiple arity relations. This is a placeholder, for the OWL version of COSMO. 'wasTheLocationOf is the inverse of 'occurredAt', and relates a GenericLocation to some Event that occurred at that location. A 'location' relation for Events. For object or region locations, see 'isLocatedAt'. The location is a GenericLocation: region of space (connected or disconnected) or an object (physical or abstract) . The value of this relation answers the question 'where did it happen?'. NOTE that the use of the past tense in this relation does not necessarily mean that the Event argument occurred in the past before the assertion time; if the relation relates a possible future Event, this relation can also be used. The past tense merely emphasizes that we are discussing Events that, in the given context, are viewed as completed and not ongoing. This can also be used for types of Events, to specify a particular location where they always occur. But to specify types of locations where types of Events usually occur, use 'typicallyOccursAt'. This is one relation expressing the notion of 'happen' that is sense 1 of verb 'happen' in WordNet: 1. (150) happen, hap, go on, pass off, occur, pass, fall out, come about, take place - (come to pass; 'What is happening?'; 'The meeting took place off without an incidence'; 'Nothing occurred that seemed important') happen happen happen1v A Type-level 'location' relation for Events, to specify that a certain type of Event usually occurs *inside* a certain type of object. isAdjacentTo specifies that some GenericLocation (an Object or a Region) is 'adjacent' to another. This means that it might be touching, with nothing in between, or might be separated by some thin space, which might have a name, as in a 'crack' or a sulcus in the brain. If there is a solid object separating them, two GenericLocations can be 'near' but not 'adjacent'. NOTE that this relation makes intuitive sense only when the adjacent objects are of comparable size. We do not usually say that a bacterium on the skin is 'adjacent to' the skin. A different (perhaps more general) relation should be defined for such cases, because the gap that exists in non-touching cases can be large relative to one object and small relative to the other. NOTE: this is similar to the instance-level OBO_REL relation 'adjacent_to', except that this COSMO relation is solely an instance relation and is not used at the Type level. For specifying the typical relations of Types (as in the OBO definition below), a separate class-level relation and inference axioms will be required. OBO_REL: relation adjacent_to: (only the instance-level relation is similar to COSMO 'isAdjacentTo'. Definition: C adjacent to C' if and only if: given any instance c that instantiates C at a time t, there is some c' such that: c' instantiates C' at time t and c and c' are in spatial proximity. OBO Comments: Note that adjacent_to as thus defined is not a symmetric relation, in contrast to its instance-level counterpart. For it can be the case that Cs are in general such as to be adjacent to instances of C1 while no analogous statement holds for C1s in general in relation to instances of C. Examples are: nuclear membrane adjacent_to cytoplasm; seminal vesicle adjacent_to urinary bladder; ovary adjacent_to parietal pelvic peritoneum A FunctionQuantity is a Function that maps from one or more instances of ConstantQuantity to another instance of ConstantQuantity. For example, the velocity of a particle would be represented by a FunctionQuantity mapping values of time (which are ConstantQuantities) to values of distance (also ConstantQuantities). Note that all instances of FunctionQuantity are Functions with a fixed arity. Note too that all elements of the range of a FunctionQuantity have the same physical dimension as the FunctionQuantity itself. A ConstantQuantity is a PhysicalQuantity which has a constant value, e.g. 3 meters and 5 hours. The magnitude (see MagnitudeFn) of every ConstantQuantity is a RealNumber. ConstantQuantities are distinguished from FunctionQuantities, which map ConstantQuantities to other ConstantQuantities. All ConstantQuantites are expressed with the BinaryFunction MeasureFn, which takes a Number and a UnitOfMeasure as arguments. For example, 3 Meters can be expressed as (MeasureFn 3 Meter). ConstantQuantities form a partial order (see PartialOrderingRelation) with the lessThan relation, since lessThan is a RelationExtendedToQuantities and lessThan is defined over the RealNumbers. The lessThan relation is not a total order (see TotalOrderingRelation) over the class ConstantQuantity since elements of some subclasses of ConstantQuantity (such as length quantities) are incomparable to elements of other subclasses of ConstantQuantity (such as mass quantities). 'typicallyProduces' is a type-level relation that can be used to specify that most instances of an Event result in production of some type of Object or Substance - but is used at the type level so that there will be no need to specify an instance of the object produced, nor an automatic skolemization of such an instance hadResult relates a PhysicalEvent to something that resulted from that Event. This is the most general 'result' or 'creation' relation. See also 'wasCreatedbyEvent' and 'produced'. There may be many things resulting from a given Event (creation or destruction of something, initiation of a Process or another Event, a PersistentState). It is useful also to state a restriction on Event types, specifying the kind of result that an Event may or must have. This is a relation that is called 'result' in SUMO, and is one of the CaseRole relations in that ontology. The Inverse of 'hadResult'. produced relates an Event to something that is produced in the Event. It is the inverse of 'isTheProductOf'. NOTE that 'produced' does not necessarily mean 'created' in the sense that the thing produced did not exist before the Eent: Bleeding is an Action that 'produced' Blood, and the Blood existed before the Bleeding, but it was part of an animal before the bleeding and became independent of the animal as a result of the Bleeding process (which is a subtype of EmittingStuff). Creating in the sense of something going from nonexisting to existing is represented by the subproperty 'causedCreationOf'. In Cyc, a similar but not identical relation is called 'outputs'. Cyc ('outputs'): This predicate relates a particular creation or destruction event to any of its outputs . (#$outputs EVENT OBJECT) means that OBJECT is an output of EVENT. That is, OBJECT is either created/produced as a result of EVENT (see the specializations #$outputsCreated, #$products, #$byProducts) or something left after another thing was destroyed in EVENT (see the specialization #$outputsRemaining). For example, silicon chips are both #$outputsCreated in and #$products of a chip manufacturing process, while a hunk of scrap metal is an #$outputsRemaining after a car is put through a crusher. When appropriate, instead of using #$outputs, use one of its specializations (of which those mentioned above are the nearest). 'produces' is a type-level relation that can be used to specify that every instance of an Event results in production of some type of Object - but is used at the type level so that there will be no need to specify an instance of the object produced, nor an automatic skolemization of such an instance A specialization of #$AtLeastPartiallyMentalEvent. Each instance of this collection is an event which is 'strictly mental' in the sense that if the event is instantiated by some physical situation, that instantiating situation is not essential to the event being an event of that type. For instance, perceiving an apple is not an instance of #$StrictlyMentalEvent insofar as it essentially requires sense organs and an apple (and thus #$Perceiving is not a specialization of #$StrictlyMentalEvent). However, the phenomenological aspects of this event, e.g., the experience of redness or roundness, do not require the sense organs or the apple, and it is conceivable that a disembodied mind could have such experiences. (Thus, #$ExperiencingPerception is a specialization of #$StrictlyMentalEvent.) Note that the property defining this collection is primitive and notoriously difficult to define, except via examples. If an event is not clearly an instance of #$ExperiencingPerception, entertaining a thought (#$Thinking), or #$ExperiencingEmotion, or fully decomposable into a collection of such events, then one should be very careful about making it in an instance of #$StrictlyMentalEvent. be48d9d6-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A specialization of #$MentalSituation (q.v.) each instance of which has a single agent (normally an #$IndividualAgent) as its subject . A subject in this sense is an agent who has, undergoes, experiences, entertains, or performs the mental situation, as the case may be. Instances of #$MentalSituation-SingleSubject can be mental _events_ (see #$AtLeastPartiallyMentalEvent) such as acts of perception or mental _states_ (see #$MentalState) such as Alice's loving Bob. This collection excludes any mental situations that have more than one subject, such as (perhaps) an event of mutual recognition between two people, as well as any mental situations that have no proper subject at all, such as (perhaps) an event of mass hysteria or a state involving the Jungian collective unconscious . It of course does not exclude a given mental situation merely because it happens to _involve_ more than one agent; Alice's loving Bob involves two people, but Alice is nevertheless its only subject. The two notable specializations of this collection are #$IntentionalMentalSituation and #$StateOfUnconsciousness. c08529b5-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A PersistentState that is a MentalEvent. Each InternalState is a PersistentState in which some set of component parts of a System maintain a stable configuration (the properties of the components and relations among them are constant within the limits considered significant) for some interval of time. The system can be a living organism or part of an organism, or some artifact that is designed to have alternative internal states (such as a thermostat). Feelings of cognitive agents are example of InternalState. COSMO note: This is not the act of 'feeling something by touching', which is represented by 'Perceiving' and 'TouchingDeliberately'; this is the act of experiencing some internal state describe by 'a feeling' or, in a more intense form, 'an emotion' Linguistically this can be expressed by saying that someone 'is feeling' something or 'has a feeling of' something. To say one 'is feeling sadness' is equivalent to saying on 'is feeling sad', though the adjective is represented as an AttributeValue, and the noun is represented as a 'Feeling' In Cyc a feeling is called 'FeelingAttribute' and classified very differently, though the intended meaning is the same. In COSMO, feelings and emotions are considered as PersistentStates - events in which some more or less constant mental process that does not involve symbolic thinking is going on. Feelings are vague and only can be labeled in very general terms. All different types of feeling are primitive concepts. feelings include emotions, worries, concerns, elation, many others. NOTE that in COSMO, 'Sensation' (a tpe of Perception' is also a subtype of 'Feeling'. Cyc: The collection of all emotions and mental feelings. As an emotion/feeling can be experienced in various degrees of intensity, an instance of #$FeelingAttribute is some particular relative amount of happiness, confidence, fear, or whatever. These relative amounts can be measured using the #$GenericValueFunctions (q.v.), such as #$LowAmountFn, #$VeryHighAmountFn, etc. For example, (#$LowAmountFn #$Happiness) is the #$FeelingAttribute of feeling a relatively low amount of happiness. (Note that #$Happiness itself is not an individual feeling attribute but a _collection_ of #$FeelingAttributes - a #$FeelingType (q.v.) - whose instances are the individual attributes of feeling particular relative amounts of happiness; (#$LowAmountFn #$Happiness) is one such instance.) This corresponds to verb sense 1 of 'feel' and noun sense 1 of 'feeling' in WordNet; WN 'feel': 1. (182) feel, experience - (undergo an emotional sensation; 'She felt resentful'; 'He felt regret') WN 'feeling': 1. (50) feeling - (the experiencing of affective and emotional states; 'she had a feeling of euphoria'; 'he had terrible feelings of guilt'; 'I disliked him and the feeling was mutual') bd5882fe-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 feel feel1v feeling feeling1n hasFeeling relates a CognitiveAgent to some feeling that the Agent has (at some particular time). refersToExternalEntity relates a MentalObject (e.g. a document, goal, fear) or a Communication to some external entity that is explicitly referenced in the MentalObject or Communication. The external entity may be any kind of entity: physical object, topic of study, event past or future. A Goal may, for example, focus on some Event or State that the agent wants to happen. @@@ToDo NOTE that by allowing 'Communication', an Event, to be a subject of this relation we are to some extent conflating the Communication act with the subject of the communication. These parts should be distinguished, but because of the limnited expressivity of OWL, at v0.36 this conflation is allowed, to make the ontology easier to work with until a better tool is adopted. A DirectedFeeling is a Feeling that is directed toward, and sometimes caused by, something external to the Agent - an Event or Object. Disgust is a Feeling that may be directed at an Object. Joy may be caused by an Event. A Desire is DirectedFeeling within a CognitiveAgent that is specific to that agent, that references some 'DesiredFutureSituation'. The restrictions require that a DesiredFutureSituation be specified, and that a Goal be specified that references that DesiredFutureSituation. The Feeling of Desire may be caused by the conclusion of a rational thinking process. A Person may desire a thing (i.e. to possess a thing), or some future situation - for something to happen, or some process to occur, or some state to come into existence. a specialization of 'Desire' is a 'Goal', which similarly refers to some future situation, but bringing about that future situation involves some action on the part of the Agent with the Goal. To 'desire' something is to have this feeling of 'Desire'. Although in language we can say that a person 'desires' an object, in COSMO that would be represented as the person desiring the 'DesiredFutureSituation' in which that person possesses that object, so the desired thing is in all cases a Situation (referenced by the relation 'hasDesiredSituation'), even if an Object is indirectly referenced as a participant in that Situation (i.e. the .DesiredSituation is possession of the Object). NOTE that the restriction on this Type references a 'DesiredFutureSituation' rather than merely a FutureSituation. This requires that, in specifying a Desire and the Situation desired, that Situation should be categorized as a DesiredFutureSituation so that it can contain a pointer back to the Agent who wants it, and serve as an index of which agents would be pleased to see a particular Situation happen. (Not all agents need to be thus referenced, as certain DesiredFutureSituations such as the election of some person to an office, may be desired by a very large number of people). NOTE: In SUMO, 'desires' is treated as a relationship between some CognitiveAgent and a proposition describing the thing desired, and a 'Desire' would be the Proposition that is the object of that relation. But there is another difference. The SUMO 'desires' apparently is closer to COSMO 'Goal' since it involves participation of the Agent. The SUMO relation is described here for reference, but is not equivalent to 'Desire' in COSMO. SUMO: (definition of 'desires') '(desires ?AGENT ?FORMULA)' means that ?AGENT wants to bring about the state of affairs expressed by ?FORMULA. Note that there is no implication that what is desired by the agent is not already true. Note too that desires is distinguished from wants only in that the former is a PropositionalAttitude, while wants is an ObjectAttitude. Corresponds to noun sense 1 and verb sense 1 of 'desire' and verb sense 1 of 'want' in WordNet: WN noun 'desire': 1. (34) desire - (the feeling that accompanies an unsatisfied state) WN verb 'desire' 1. (25) desire, want - (feel or have a desire for; want strongly; 'I want to go home now'; 'I want my own room') desire desire desire1n desire1v want want want1v bd58fb03-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A Goal is a MentalObject that relates to a Situation that an IntelligentAgent desires and intends to make happen by taking some action. In COSMO a Goal is a Group of MentalObjects that necessarily includes a Desire - because the Goal references something that an Agent wants to happen, which is the characteristic of a Desire. A Goal, in addition to the desire to see something happen, includes the intention (expectation) that the Agent her/himself will take some action to help make that thing happen. NOTE that a 'Goal' includes an Intention, but differs from an Intention in that the Goal references a situation that the Agent desires, whereas an Intention to do something does not necessarily imply that the Agent wants the FutureSituation to happen for the Agent's own purposes - agent could intend to do something demanded by someone else.. COSMO note: In OpenCyc a Goal is a subtype of '#ELSentence-Assertible' - i.e. an assertion. Although the Cyc representation of 'Goal' includes many of the intuitions that seem to be contained in the usual meaning of 'Goal', the linguistic usage appears to be closer to the notion of the goal being the realization of the actual situation that an agent (usually a person) wants to become true; however, the Goal is in the mind of the IntelligentAgent, and is created by the IntelligentAgent, but is not a PhysicalObject, threfore is best represented as MentalObject in COSMO, rather than the situation itself. It necessarily includes some intention, but is not the intention itself. So the representation of a Goal must include each of these elements in relation to each other. NOTE that a Goal references some desired FutureSituation. When the FutureSituation has occurred and is no longer in the Future, the Goal itself must terminate its existence, and the Goal will be located in the past, Restrictions specify that every instance of Goal must specify the IntentionalAgent who has the goal (through the relation 'wasCreatedBy') and the DesiredFutureSituation that has caused that Goal to arise. Cyc: Typically, this attribute characterizes relationships holding between Cyc formulas and a particular agent when the formula describes a state of affairs that the agent intends to take steps to actualize, i.e., when actualizing the state of affairs is a goal of the agent. However, it might also be seen as an attribute of the relationship between the agent and the static situation depicted by that cyc formula (see #$StateFn). This is the most general goal attribute and should be used only when one is unable to specify more exactly what kind of goal the relevant state of affairs is for an agent. ToDO: axioms must specify that the FutureSituation of the Desire and Intention are the same, and that the Agent that has the Goal will be a participant in the FutureSituaion. A Number that expresses a position in a sequence, as contrasted with a cardinal number that represents some quantity of things. Ordinal numbers map to the integers. NOTE that an OrdinalNumber can also appear in fractions, in which it has a different meaning. The Lexical Expert routing must disambiguate. @ToDO r755 - perhaps an OrdinalNumber should be a subtype of FunctionalAttributeValue rather than Number? SUMO uses ordinals like 'first' 'last' as functions. Numbers and AttributeValues are disjoint - this needs some additional thought. COSMO version 0.52 has reified only the first twelve OrdinalNumbers. When others are needed, they can be reified in-line with the relations using them. In addition to the specific numerical OrdinalNumbers, three vague OrdinalNumbers are defined for orders that are unknown but must nevertheless be specified by some restriction: 'Unranked'; 'LowRank' and 'HighRank'. 'hasPriority' is a specialized relation for Goal, indicating what is the the relative priority (importance) of that Goal for the agent who has that Goal. A Priority value can be explicitly an OrdinalNumber (First, Second), or may be undetermined ('Unranked') or vague ('HighRank', 'LowRank') . A CodeSymbol is an AbstractSymbol created for the purpose of serving as the symbol element of a Code. A Code is an ordered Group of symbols, at least one of which is the CodeSymbol (usually a CodeString) and at least one other being the explanation or interpretation of the CodeSymbol (the 'CodeDescription'). We adopt the convention that a Code is always part of a CodeList, even if there is only one element in the List. A Code should never be used unless the CodeList and CodingAuthority are also specified. A CodeList will sometimes be included in a CodeSpecification, which has additional explanatory information on the usage of the CodeList. But a Codelist may simply be a CodeTable in a database, which may have only two columns, the CodeString and the CodeDescription; the CodingAuthority for a CodeTable can be the DatabaseAdministrator. NOTE: a system of encoding, often commonly called a 'Code' would be termed a 'CodingSystem' - not yet described as of v0.3. containsSymbolicObject specifies that some AbstractSymbolicObject (such as a text) contains some other AbstractSymbolicObject. This relation may be used to specify that some type of text must always contain an instance of another type of text. NOTE that this is not a subproperty of 'contains' because the definition of 'contains' requires that the contained thing is not a part of the containing thing. For this symbolic containment, we allow the contained thing to be a part of the containing thing isContainedInSymbolicObject specifies that some AbstractSymbolicObject (such as a string, sentence, paragraph, or list) is contained in some other AbstractSymbolicObject (such as a document). This relation is transitive. This is the inverse of 'containsSymbolicObject'. A CodeSpecification is an AbstractDocument that contains a CodeList and will typically contain some other explanatory materials such as who created the CodeList, and how and in what circumstances the Codes are to be used. NOTE the restriction: every CodeSpecification contains a CodeList. A CodeList is a list of Codes, each Code is a Group of elements containing at least a CodeString and the meaning of the CodeString, with possibly other elements The internal structure of a Code not yet fully defined (v0.2). The relations should be: (1) each CodeString is an element of a (Group) Code, and (2) each Code isInList (some CodeList). NOTE that some CodeString might be assigned by more than one CodingAuthority, meaning that the same code may mean different things for different CodingAuthorities and on different CodeLists. The meaning must be found by referencing the specific CodeList used. In the event that the same code is used in one system (ontology or application) to mean different things, the amiguity must be resolved by specifying a CodeList as the parent Type for each data instance represented as a Code. This is important where numbers are used as Codes in databases; each such number will be an instance of a CodeString from a CodeList (which will often be represented as an enumeration in a data model). Thus an enumeration in a data model functions (and may be represented) as a CodeList. A CodingAuthority is an Authority who has created a CodeList. codeWasSpecifiedByAuthority relates a CodeString to the CodingAuthority that assigned it. This relation is a specialized subProperty of 'wasCreatedBy', and although an identical String may have been created by some other Agent, the specific CodeString in a Code is considered to be 'created' by the Authority that created the Code; therefore the CodeString is a different individual from any other similar String that may exist. This individuality will be evidenced by the convention that the unique label for a CodeString will be a concatenation including the name (or acronym) of the CodeTable as well as the string which is the same as the CodeString, thus forming a unique label.. NumberString is an AbstractString which is a representation of a number. NumberStrings have different formats, including integer, decimal, real, hexadecimal, binary, and scientific notation, along with national variants. IntegerString is an AbstractString which is a representation of an integer, and which has only the numerical characters 0 through 9 in it. CodeNumber is a CodeString which is an IntegerString. As a convention for convenience, each CodeNumber must be prefixed by the capital letters 'CN', and the number itself will follow those two letters. This permits the creation of individual CodeNumbers as instance of this class, with legitimate individual names (numbers alone are not permitted in OWL). A CodeNumber with 'CN' in the name must conform to that syntax, so the system can recognize the number even if it has no assigned system String. NOTE that this convention is used because there is a distinction between the representations of strings that are instances of an 'AbstractString' Type and strings that are encoded as system datatypes, though they are fundamentally the same conceptual entities. This is an implementation issue. containsCode points from a CodeList to one of the Codes it contains. The ontology name for each Code will not be the same as the CodeString that the Code (a list) will contain, because of the great redundancy of code strings, especially the numerical ones. As a convention, the default will be to use a 'namespace' prefix (or suffix) with some small number of letters indicating which code list the Code is from. containsCodeString points from a Code to the CodeString it contains. The actual code used in a database, form, or application will not be the same as the CodeString that the Code (a list) will contain, because of the great redundancy of code strings, especially the numerical ones. As a convention, the default will be to use a 'CodeListPrefix' (a namespace prefix or suffix) with some small number of letters indicating which code list the Code is from. To find the actual code string used, the datatype relation 'representsCode' is used to point to a dataype string that is the code itself, without the prefix. The prefix itself will be specified by the relation 'hasUniquePrefix', which will be a string of characters that should be unique in the ontology. containsCodeDescription points from a Code to a description of the meaning of the CodeString. The description may be the name of an entity in the database, or may be a free text describing the meaning of the code in non-formatted language. The description may be simply an expansion of the CodeString, which might be an abbreviated form of he actual entity coded. representsType points from a Code to some Type or instance in the ontology that the CodeString is intended to represent. Thus a CodeString 'PFC' could point to ontology element 'PrivateFirstClass', a Role in a military organization. The Sex code 'SEX_M' will point to 'MaleSex', an instance of Gender. This is useful where the actual *description* of the meaning of the Code in a CodeList is not lexically identical to the name of the type or instance in the ontology. representsType points from a Code or CodeString to some instance in the ontology that the CodeString is intended to represent. Thus a CodeString 'CC2_US' would point to the instance of Country 'UnitedStatesOfAmerica'. A CodeDescription is an AbstractString containing a description or definition of the meaning of a COdeSymbol. Every Code must have a CodeDescription. An AbstractWordString is an AbstractString that is intended to symbolize a single concept, therefore it is also an AbstractSymbol. There is some debate over what should linguistically constitute a Word, and some of that ambiguity will apply to the notion of an AbstractWordString. At a minimum, in the English language, a string of characters that is not broken by spaces can be considered an 'AbstractWordString', even if it is nonsensical or some code string. Tightly linked groups of character strings that have meaning that cannot be constructed from the individual character strings (e.g. idioms that are not sentences) can also be considerd here as 'AbstractWordStrings' Each CodeString is an AbstractString that represents a Code that was created by some CodingAuthority to represent some other word, phrase, or concept. Every CodeString must be part of a CodeList and must have a CodingAuthority who created it, defined it, and maintains it. What is commonly called a 'Code' is here referred to as a CodeString. A CodeString may be a number. NOTE: that the name of each instance of CodeString in this ontology must be unique; therefore, the name of the CodeString is created by prefixing a code string prefix to the actual string that serves as the code. The actual code itself can be recovered by using the 'representsCode' datatype relation. NOTE that some CodeString might be assigned by more than one CodingAuthority, meaning that the same code may mean different things for different CodingAuthorities and on different CodeLists. The meaning must be found by referencing the specific CodeList used. In the event that the same code is used in one system (ontology or application) to mean different things, the amiguity must be resolved by specifying a CodeList as the parent Type for each data instance represented as a Code. This is important where numbers are used as Codes in databases; each such number will be an instance of a CodeString from a CodeList (which will often be represented as an enumeration in a data model). Thus an enumeration in a data model functions (and may be represented) as a CodeList. COSMO-ToDo: The internal structure of codes and code lists had not yet been fully described or axiomatized. isPartOfCodeList relates a CodeString to the CodeList in which it is defined. NOTE that each Code in the CodeList contains both the CodeString and its definition, so it is not correct to use the isInList relation to relate the CodeString directly to the CodeList, rather each Code is related by the isInList relation. This isPartOfCodeList relation forms a shortcut, combining relations between the CodeString and the Code and between the Code and its CodeList. NOTE that some CodeString might be assigned by more than one CodingAuthority, meaning that the same code may mean different things for different CodingAuthorities and on different CodeLists. The meaning must be found by referencing the specific CodeList used. In the event that the same code is used in one system (ontology or application) to mean different things, the amiguity must be resolved by specifying a CodeList as the parent Type for each data instance represented as a Code. This is important where numbers are used as Codes in databases; each such number will be an instance of a CodeString from a CodeList (which will often be represented as an enumeration in a data model). Thus an enumeration in a data model functions (and may be represented) as a CodeList. COSMO note: called 'AwardPractice' in Cyc. Each instance of this type is an abstract object conveyed from some Authority (some person or organization who created the type of award conferred) to an individual, organization, animal (first prize at a competition) or to some object (building, art work) The abstract award is often symbolized by presentation of a plaque, medal, trophy, or document. An academic degree is an HonorAward. An HonorAward is often, but does not have to be, in recognition of some distinguished action. Military medals (abstract version) are HonorAwards. Each HonorAward is considered in COSMO by convention as being created on the day it is formally presented. Cyc: A collection of intangibles. Each instance of #$AwardPractice is a distinction bestowed upon someone or something by an appropriately authorized agent, generally in recognition of some accomplishment and often as a result of a competitive process. Awards may be given to people, books, buildings, cities, etc. Note that this collection represents the awards themselves rather than tangible symbols of awards, such as medals or Oscar statuettes. Nor do its instances represent any money that might accompany an award. See also #$SymbolicObject, #$Token-Physical. bd58dc36-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A Mission is a Goal, to which the IntelligentAgent has a higher level of commitment (or determination) than for a common Goal; in addition, the Goal needs to have as a beneficiary some purpose other than benefitting the IntelligentAgent itself. A Mission may include a number of individual Goals, a and will be motivated by some sense of duty, which may be self-imposed. The Random House dictionary defines this sense of Mission as: '16. an assigned or self-imposed duty or task; calling; vocation.' . The level of commitment required to make a Goal into a Mission is vague, but for this ontology it merely needs to be significantly higher than for a typical Goal. The commitment may be imposed by some authority other than the Agent with the Mission, e.g. by an employer or supervisor. A military 'mission' will typically be assigned by someone other than the persons performing the mission. Having a Mission does not necessarily mean that the IntelligentAgent with the Mission will not benefit from its accomplishment; it merely means that some other Agent must also benefit. Thus a commercial company can have as its 'Mission' the total satisfaction of its customers. That benefits both the company and its customers. ToDO; axioms must specify the above conditions. wasAssignedByAuthority is a general relation relating any a number of type of things to the Authority that assigned those things, commonly rules. Note that the object of this relation is 'IntelligentAgent', not the more specialized 'Authority'. This is because the assignment of some rule or specification may be done bu an agent who adopts the 'Authority' role for a particular situation, rather than doing that as one of a routine series of actions in some recognized and formal 'Authority' role. A Rule is a special kind of Proposition that asserts that some agent has some Obligation to do (or refrain from doing) some act. This is not a logical 'rule', which is categorized in the type 'Axiom'. NOTE that as a subtype of Proposition, this 'Rule' type represents the conceptual content, not the abstract symbolic things (AbstractTexts) that describe the Rule, nor the physical texts on which the Rule may be visibly written. Every Rule specifies what is desired or mandatory for some future situation, and carries the expectation that agents who conform to the Rule will make that Situation happen. The definition of Rule subsumes simple games as well as complicated laws and business rules. The future situations may be processes, events, or states. Thus the Rule 'stop for a red light' refers to the situation where a vehicle approaches an intersection with a traffic light that is red; - to conform to the Rule, the vehicle must perform the event of stopping before the location of the light. That event of stopping is the desired situation that the Rule specifies. Although Rules are created to be applied to Agents, it is difficult in many cases to specify the agents to whom the rules are intended to apply, as the agents may be in some cases only vaguely defined by membership in a class - for example, game rules only apply to those playing the game at some particular time. Laws may apply to anyone 'within the jurisdiction'. A MentalObjectGroup is a Group consisting solely of MentalObjects. An AbstractDocument is an abstract symbolic object that has at least one part that is an AbstractText. Note that this 'document' is abstract, not a physical document. Each AbstraactDocument has at least one physical object that represents that document. Note that a one-way message can be considered as a complete document, but is more specific in having a sender and a list of intended recipients. 'containedExperience' points from a MentalEvent to some MentalObject that formed the experience (if any) that the experiencer experienced (if the mental event was an experience event). Examples of experience types that may be pointed to by this relation are 'Belief' and 'Emotion'. It is in the past tense, as Events in COSMO are considered as bounded in time, and must be in the past after the end point. NOTE: this relation might better be represented by an argument in a ternary relation, but is binary to accommodate the limitations of OWL. 'hasBeliever' points from a Opinion or Belief (or BeliefSystem) to to some IntelligentAgent (or group) that holds that Belief. 'believes' is the inverse of 'hasBeliever'; it points from an intelligent agent to a Belief (or Opinion) or BeliefSystem to which the agent has at least nominal adherence. NOTE that to say someone 'believes' something does not indicate the strength of the belief. For religious 'believers', the belief may be so nominal as to be nearly meaningless. But there should be some agreement to some core elments of a belief system to say that someone is a 'believer'. @TODo: For cases where someone is, for example, traditionally Catholic but has no actual belief at all in any of the theological assertions of that faith, the relation 'believes' should not be used. Since the ontology says that a Catholic 'believes' Catholicism, a different Type should be used for those who have only nominal but not actual adherence to a faith. As of COSMO version 0.45, this distinction has not been added to the class hierarchy - no parent 'nominal' type is defined. This may best be approached by creating a 'nominal' function. An Opinion is a Proposition that an IntelligentAgent considers more likely to be true than not to be true. An Opinion is not necessarily considered to be certain or to be strongly held by the agent. If strongly held, it would be a Belief (a subtype of Opinion). NOTE that an assertion that contains an Opinion is not an opinion in this sense,but a representation of an Opinion. This includes both publicly expressed and privately held opinions. NOTE: An opinion poll result is a *measure* of opinions, not an instance of this type. NOTE that although an 'opinion' is not necessarily certain, this type includes 'expert opinion' as presented in court testimony. NOTE in WordNet 2.1, the relationship of Opinion (synset: opinion, sentiment, persuasion, view, thought) and Belief are inverted relative to COSMO, with Belief being more general in WOrdNet includes noun senses 1 and 2 of 'opinion' in WordNet:. 1. (408) opinion, sentiment, persuasion, view, thought - (a personal belief or judgment that is not founded on proof or certainty; 'my opinion differs from yours'; 'what are your thoughts on Haiti?') 2. (76) public opinion, popular opinion, opinion, vox populi - (a belief or sentiment shared by most people; the voice of the people; 'he asked for a poll of public opinion') opinion opinion opinion1n opinion2n A Belief is a Proposition that an IntelligentAgent considers to be so likely to be true that there is no value in doubting it, and no good reason to act as though it might be false. The degree of certainty which people attach to various statements of fact varies on a continuous scale, and it is probably not possible to distinguish some opinions that a person has some doubt about from what they 'believe'. Also, people may say they 'believe' one thing, but act as though they don't consider it true. One function of representing a Belief (as contrasted with an assertion that a person may make) is to allow representing a Lie (an assertion contrary to an Agent's belief), and to provide one componenent of motivation for an Agent to act. NOTE that although a Belief, like other MentalObjects, may have a location that is the sum of all physical representations, it must have had at least one active believer to be a Belief. That Believer may be a DeadPerson. The detailed axiomatization of 'belief' is postponed until COSMO is converted to FOL and some task that requires details of belief is at hand.. A Difference is an Attribute of an OrderedPair of entities, which is represented as an OrderedPair of AttributeValues that differ between those entities, with the ordering of the Attributes being the same as the ordering of the pair being compared. The entities being compared may consist of the diachronically same entity at different times (the entities may be instances of TimeSlice). The Difference is formally an Attribute, and therefore each Difference must specify the AttributeType (Color, Length) within which the comparison is being made. The value of the Difference is contained within an OrderedPair of Attributes, but may be expressed differently depending on whether the values being compared are quantitative and commensurate. A Difference in commensurate QuantitativeAttributeValues can be expressed linguistically as a single QuantitativeAttributeValue of the same dimension ('they differ by six inches in height'). **NOTE** that, as an Attribute, it would be possible to specify the value using a 'hasValue' relation; following the representation chosen here, that AttributeValue should be an OrderedPair of the two AttributeValues being compared. However, for convenience, this layer of indirection is not represented, and the two components of the AttributeValue are specified directly by making the Difference itself an OrderedPair, and using the 'hasFirstElement' and 'hasSecondElement' relations to identify the two compnents of the value. IF this proves confusing or logically problematic, it can be changed back to a representation consistent with other Attribute representations. (v0.50, rev 679) ** For differences between commensurable quantitative attributes, the difference between pair {a, b} will be attr(a) - attr(b) (the attribute value of first element minus the second). ** For qualitative attributes or relations, the Difference consists of a group of one or more paired AttributeValues, one pair for each type of AttributeValue or Relation for which the value differs. Linguistically a qualitative difference can be expressed thus: if, for the pair {a, b} if a is red and b is blue, one may say 'a is red but b is blue'. NOTE that in order to be considered as a 'Difference' the pairs of AttributeValues constituting each difference must consist of AttributeValues that are disjoint from each other, which in general means that they must be of identical or commensurate AttributeType. To say that 'A is 5 feet long and Y is red' does not specify a legitimate Difference between X and Y. The AttributeValues that differ must shape a common AttributeType, and that AttributeType must be specified using the 'hasAttributeType' relation on each instance of 'Difference'.. If there are no attribute values or relations that differ, the two entities might actually be identical - but if they have different locations, two entities will not be mathematically (logically) identical even if the locations are not specified in the description of the entities. The problem in deciding identity from a list of differences is that one never knows that *all* properties of two entities are known to be compared. Quantum mechanical issues create additional complications in comparisons at the subatomic level. A difference is one or more pairs of Attributes, qualitative or quantitative, that is derived as the result of a comparison process between one or more attributes of two entities, or between that attribute of a single entity after some period of time, as after an Event. A comparison process may also result in a partially complementary list of similarities (see 'Similarity'). There is no exact WordNet concept that expressses this meaning, but this is closest to WordNet sense 1 of 'difference: WN: the quality of being unlike or dissimilar; 'there are many differences between jazz and rock' WN-N04692996: sense 1 of 'difference' in WN 2.1. In the case of wordnet sense 1, it appears that this is intended to represent an overall difference, which could be a set of differences between two entities.There is, however, no other sense of 'difference' in WordNet that is more general, so this sense is assigned the most general 'difference' A common-sense problem arises when we classify a difference as merely an attribute which expresses the result of 'subtracting' one attribute value from another. If there is no difference, this result constitutes both a difference (value = 0) and a similarity (i.e. no difference). This is counterintuitive, from a linguistic point of view. Accordingly, though logically a 'similarity' could be classified as merely a 'small difference', the term 'similarity' will not be arranged as a subtype of 'Difference', but directly under 'AttributeValue', as is 'Difference'. To 'compare and contrast' two entities, both the similarities and the differences might be listed. This corrspnds most closely to noun sense 1 of 'difference' in WordNet: 1. (77) difference - (the quality of being unlike or dissimilar; 'there are many differences between jazz and rock') difference difference1n hasAttribute relates an Object or Substance to some Attribute which the Object may have. Each Attribute will explictly include an AttributeType and an AttributeValue. For cases where an AttributeValue may measure more than one AttributeType, using this relation may leave ambiguity as to its precise meaning. This may be used where it is desirable or necessary to explicitly specify the AttributeType as well as the value. Thus a Length will have 'Length' as its AttributeType and some length measure as the value. In COSMO the formalism is adopted that an instance of Attribute can also be an instance of TimeSlice. If hasAttribute points to an instance of Attribute that is an instance of TimeSLice, that is equivalent to specifying that the Attribute applies at all points in the duration of the TimeSlice, i.e. remains constant during that time interval. NOTE That if an Object is specified as having some Attribute during some interval of time, that is equivalent to specifying the existence of a PersistentState for that Object during that interval. 'haveDifference' relates an OrderedPair to some Difference (also an OrderedPair, of Attributes) that someone considers significant and worth representation. NOTE that to specify that two individuals are not identical to each other (the same invidividual), the OWL property: owl:differentFrom can be used. 'Different' is a QualitativeAttributeValue for some Pair of entities. This should be interpreted as meaning that the two entities are not identical (are not the same individual), and the same notion can be represented by linking the two entities by an 'owl:differentFrom' relation. This correspponds approximately to adjective sense 5 of 'different' in WordNet: 5. (1) different - (distinct or separate; 'each interviewed different members of the community') different different different5adj hadEffect Specifies one of the effects that are the result of an Event. Not every Event needs to have an 'effect'. A stative event merely represents the continuation of some attributes at their initial value for some interval of time, and no changes occur to be worthy of representing as an 'effect'. NOTE that this is an instance-level relation, and cannot be used to state that some type of Event typically or always causes some type of Effect. For the type-level relation use 'causes' or 'alwaysCauses'. NOTE that the use of the past tense in this relation does not necessarily mean that the Event argument occurred in the past before the assertion time; this relation can also be used to relate possible future Events. The past tense merely emphasizes that we are discussing arg1 Events that, in the given context, are viewed as completed and not ongoing. In Cyc the relation '#$causes-EventEvent' (guid = bfa7c0e3-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270) has a similar meaning. Cyc: (#$causes-EventEvent CAUSE EFFECT) means that the event CAUSE was sufficient to cause the event EFFECT. #$causes-EventEvent is the predicate to use for token-token event causation, i.e., causation between individual events. See #$NoteAboutCausationPredicates for a map of related predicates. 'caused' is a relation between instances of Events, specifying that one Event resulted by some direct mechanism in the occurrence of some other Event. It is a subproperty of 'hadEffect', restricted to Events where the occurrence of one resulting Event can be attributed to the necessary occurrence of a prior or simultaneous Event. NOTE: This relation is for direct physical causation, not the kind of causation that is mediated by mental processes, such as 'Jack's action caused me to leave the room'. The relations specifying mental causation are discussed under 'causesMentalEvent'. COSMO note: causality is a very primitive concept, about which there is no broad consensus. For COSMO, the main inference is the contrafactual assertion that 'if A caused B, B would not have occurred without A'. This by itself does not distinguish 'cause' from enabling conditions. The causal Event A should also be specified as effecting a change such that the state before A would not have permitted B, while the state after A did permit B. But processes can also have causal relations. The causality of processes is not yet elaborated in COSMO (v 0.43). More logical elaboration is needed. 'wasCausedBy' is the inverse of 'caused'. This corresponds to part of the meaning of lingujistic phrases 'due to' or 'owing to'. owing to A specialization of #$PurposefulAction and #$ThinkingAboutTheStateOfTheWorld. Each instance of this collection is an event in which at least one agent evaluates some real-world thing or situation. Notable specializations of #$Evaluating include #$MeasuringSomething, #$MedicalTesting, and #$Navigating. This collection differs from #$AnalyzingSomething in that the latter does not necessarily involve some extra-mental entity. bd58bb07-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A Judging is a mental event in which some consideration of evidence and weighing of alternatives is involved. It is not as specific as a Deciding, in that Deciding implies that some future course of action is being considered, whereas the more general Judging may have no consequence other than an evaluation of some situation for one's own internal appreciation or information. An esthetic appreciation can be a Judging without any Deciding on what the results of that Judging should entail. NOTE that although every 'Judgment' (which see) is caused by some act of Judging, it is not necessarily true that an act of Judging will result in a Judgment - the available facts may be inconclusive in the opinion of the judging person. Therefore there is a 'causes' relation specified between Judging and Belief, but it is between types and therefore does not require existence of an instance of Belief produced by the Judging. Corresponds to noun sense 4 of 'judgment' in WordNet: 4. (3) judgment, judgement, judging - (the cognitive process of reaching a decision or drawing conclusions) judgment judgment4n wasCreatedDuring relates a PhysicalObject or an Artifact to the time interval (or Event) during which it was created. This is the companion to 'wasDestroyedDuring', specifying the ending time (if the entity is no longer in existence). For cases where the creation or destruction times are vague, broad time intervals can be used. NOTE that this can be used to represent the fact that something was craeted within the time interval in which some Event occurred, even if one does not know the actual time interval in which the Event happened. If in fact the Object was created as a result of an Event, the subproperty 'wasCreatedByEvent' should be used. wasDestroyedDuring relates a PhysicalObject or an Artifact to the time interval (or Event) during which it was Destroyed. This is the companion to 'wasCreatedDuring', specifying the ending time (if the entity is no longer in existence). For cases where the creation or destruction times are vague, broad time intervals can be used. wasCreatedByEvent relates an instance of PhysicalObject or Artifact to the specific Event as a result of which it was created. NOTE that this is a subproperty of 'wasCreatedDuring' - if an object was created as a result of an Event, it was created during the time interval in which the Event took place. It may be possible to use this OWL relation inappropriately by error (if the Event is represented as one time interval, and the actual time of creation was sometime later). A rule to test for such discrepancies should be included in the CL version of COSMO. the inverse of 'wasCreatedByEvent'. This relation points from an Event to an Object (physical or abstract) which was created as a result of that Event. A MentalEvent in which an IntelligentAgent explicitly creates a series of one or more assertions that lead from premises to a conclusion. To be an instance of this type, the Reasoning does not have to be valid. This is a description of a human action, not of a valid logical structure COSMO we add the parent 'AbstractSymbolicObject' to the Cyc concept 'Statement', which makes it clearly a mental object, rather than a physical object. This is interpreted as the abstract symbolic representation of a statement, not any physical representation, and not the propositional (logical) content of the statement. NOTE that a Statement does not necessarily have to have an audience in mind (it could be demented rambling speech), and therefore is not necessarily part of a Communication. The subtype 'LinguisticAssertion', however, must have an audience in mind, and is therefore constrained to be mentioned in (it might also be a part of) some Communication. The propositional content of a Statement is a Proposition. Cyc: A #$Statement is the #$InformationBearingThing created in a #$StatingSomething. An #$Agent must create the #$Statement and it contains propositional information. The illocutionary force of its contents are an #$Inform. bd620a66-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A LinguisticAssertion is sentence or combination of sentences in some language which expresses in linguistic symbols the content of a logical Assertion (which is an abstract Proposition). The Assertion may be a complex combinations of simple (atomic) assertions. In COSMO every LinguisticAssertion is a topic of some 'Communication'. The reason for this is that the act of creating an assertion in linguistic format entails that the creator had some audience in mind - even if that audience was the creator him/herself. This may leave out mindless rambling speech, but that kind of speech can be represented by a more general linguistic entity, such as 'Statement'. NOTE that the restriction here requires that a LinguisticAssertion be mentioned in some communication (not necessarily part of a communication). It can be mentioned without being part of a Commujnication if it is referred to or summarized without being presented in full in that communication. A specialization of #$AspatialInformationStore. Each instance of #$LinguisticObject is an intangible object that is part of some language or other, in a broad sense of part whereby #$LinguisticObject's specializations include such diverse collections as #$Title, #$WordSense, #$SententialConstituent, and #$NonlexicalLinguisticObject. NOTEP: in SUMO a LinguisticExpressi0on is concrete, but in COSMO it is interpreted as Abstract. SUMO: (LinguisticExpression) This is the subclass of ContentBearingObjects which are language-related. Note that this Class encompasses both Language and the the elements of Languages, e.g. Words. bd58d0fb-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A GenericLabel is either an abstract or a physical artifact that is created with the intention of designating some entity or type of entity. This Type corresponds with the English word 'label' which is ambiguous as to abstract or physical labels. A designator (abstract) is an instance of this GenericLabel type, and a physical label that is attached to an individual object (such as the computer I am typing this on) is also an instance of this Type. A GenericLabel may be iconic or symbolic in a non-linguistic way, and therefore does not have to be a word or phrase. This includes senses 1 and 4 of 'label' in WordNet. These senses are distinguished by the subtypes 'Designator' and 'PhysicalLabel' respectively. 1. (3) label - (a brief description given for purposes of identification; 'the label Modern is applied to many different kinds of architecture') 4. (1) label - (an identifying or descriptive marker that is attached to an object) label label1n label4n A Designator is a SymbolicObject that is created as a means of reference to some entity other than itself; in addition to being an AbstractSymbolicObject, it plays a Role in designating some other entity, and is therefore also a Role. The most common kinds of Designators are names of people and places, but many other kinds of Designators exist, in particular Identifiers that are numbers or have a numerical component. Every word in a language, natural or artificial, is a Designator of some kind of entity. Designators do not have to be strings or words in a language: symbolic objects such as icons can also be Designators. This corresponds to sense 1 of 'label' in WordNet. 1. (3) label - (a brief description given for purposes of identification; 'the label Modern is applied to many different kinds of architecture') label label1n A term of a Language that plays the Role of Designator for some concept. It is an AbstractString, even if it consists of a single ideogram or hieroglyph. A part of a word preceding a string which itself forms a full word. A part of a word following a string which itself forms a full word, or is the root of a full word. A sequential group of Words or other symbols (such as punctuation or logical symbols) in a Language, which function as a unit, i.e. as a unit they express some meaning in the Language. A Phrase is the abstract symbolic content (not the propositional content) of some act that creates language - a speech act, a writing act, or any other act (such as punching a telegraph key) that creates some physical representation of a group of words that together have meaning in a language. It is an AbstractString consisting of substrings that are words and punctuation. To be a Phrase it must have some meaning beyond the content of a single word; a Phrase can consist of a single word ('Yes.'), but in such cases the meaning must be derived from the context surrounding that word, as well as the word itself. Expletives are borderline, but the context and punctuation of an expletive provides meaning not contained in the lexical unit alone. A Phrase represents the abstract linguistic content of some act of producing language. In representing the content of some speech or writing act, a Phrase may be a literal transcription, or may be a summary, or merely a brief description of the gist of some statement. Allowing paraphrases will allow direct attribution of a Phrase to its original source, even though the exact original words are not known and only a summary of the content is available. The distinctions between these properties of a Phrase are not yet (v0.55) represented in COSMO. @ToDo - this type needs properties (enumerated?) to express those distinctions. A Phrase may be parsed in more than one way, and a Word may be defined as more than one lexical unit, having embedded spaces. Therefore a given string may be represented by more than one Phrase. A Phrase can be a single word (e.g. 'Yes.'). Therefore it cannot be an OrderedGroup, which must have more than one element. It is a subtype of both Group and List (a List can have one element in it). An assertion is a Proposition that is expressed in one logical sentence, which can be a complex sentence formed by an 'and' (a conjunction) or by an 'or' (disjunction'), or any combination of those. It stands by itself as being evaluable as true or false. It cannot have variables in it. Factual assertions in a knowledge base will be instances of this Type. NOTE that this Type represents the abstract *content* of an Assertion, not the symbolic representation. The symbolic representation of an Assertion, in a human language or logical language, is an instance of 'LinguisticAssertion'. For rules in the form if-condition-then-condition, use 'Axiom'. An Assertion that is created by a Reasoning Event. It is the Consequent part of an Argument, and may have more than one clause connected by 'and' or 'or. An Assertion that is created by an Evaluating Event. In an Evaluation, the Premises are derived from observation of the thing(s) being evaluated, as well as from prior knowledge. A BeliefState is a stative Event (an Event in which some property stays constant - often called a 'state'), during which some CognitiveAgent believes some proposition. The necessary components of each instance of BeliefState are an individual CognitiveAgent and a Belief (which is a subtype of Proposition). Each BeliefState occurs as a result of some Event which is a Judging or an Evaluating. NOTE that a BeliefState can involve a weak belief, such as an Expectation. It is not necessary for someone to be actively thinking about something in order to 'believe' it. Therefore a BeliefState is not a subtype of 'Thinking' which is conscious and intentional. NOTE also that although a Belief is the result of some process of Judging or Evaluating, the process does not have to be rational or fact-based, it may be a leap of faith from some very weak evidence. As an Event, a BeliefState has a specific beginning and ending time. But if one asserts that an Agent believes something, one may not know when that belief began and when it will end, and it is not necessary to specify the beginning and ending time to create an instance of BeliefState. It may be preferable to define and use a BeliefProcess rather (a FunctionalProcess) than a BeliefState (an event) but as of version 0.52 such a FunctionalProcess has not been represented in COSMO. This sense includes three of the WordNet verb senses - 1, 2, and 4, of 'believe'; the third sense is represented in COSMO as 'ExpectingSomething'. 1. (119) believe - (accept as true; take to be true; 'I believed his report'; 'We didn't believe his stories from the War'; 'She believes in spirits') 2. (72) think, believe, consider, conceive - (judge or regard; look upon; judge; 'I think he is very smart'; 'I believe her to be very smart'; 'I think that he is her boyfriend'; 'The racist conceives such people to be inferior') 3. (37) believe, trust - (be confident about something; 'I believe that he will come back from the war') believe believe believe1v believe2v believe3v A common tern synonymous with 'BeliefState'. COSMO note: the restriction requires that the Agent who is experienceing the MentalSituation be specified. Cyc: A collection of mental states and events whose instances are characterized by intentionality: they are of or about some thing external to themselves. Thoughts, acts of perception, and propositional attitudes are three common types of intentional mental situations. Thus, a particular act of thinking about the Eiffel Tower, an event of seeing the Eiffel Tower, and a given subject's believing that the Eiffel Tower is in Paris are three intentional mental situations, all having (at least) the Eiffel Tower as their object. Any thing whatsoever can in principle be the object of an intentional mental situation: I can think about a given physical object, an event, a relation, an attribute, a proposition, a mental state (my own or another's), a set, a collection, or anything else. (Note that the above mentioned belief about the Eiffel Tower and Paris is arguably not itself about the _proposition_ that the Eiffel Tower is in Paris. But now note that my belief in the content of the sentence preceding this one clearly _is_, in part, about that proposition.) Mental situations that are _not_ intentional, and thus not in this collection, include moods, itches, and pain experiences. Note that, although they are indirectly related (see e.g. #$PurposefulMentalActivity), the sense of intentional described above is not to be confused with its other sense as an antonym of accidental . See also #$IntentionalMentalEvent, #$IntentionalMentalState, #$objectOfMentalSituation, and #$thinksAbout. bdc339c8-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A specialization of both #$AtLeastPartiallyMentalEvent and #$IntentionalMentalSituation (qq.v.). This is the collection of (at least partially) mental events whose instances are characterized by intentionality: they are of or about some thing external to themselves. Thoughts and acts of perception are two common types of intentional mental events. Thus, a particular act of thinking about the Eiffel Tower and a particular act of seeing the Eiffel Tower are both intentional mental events, each having (at least) the Eiffel Tower as their object. Any thing whatsoever can in principle be the object of an intentional mental event: I can think about a certain physical object, an #$Event, a #$Relation, an attribute, a #$Proposition, a mental state (my own or another's), a set, a #$Collection, or anything else. Mental events that are _not_ intentional, and thus not in this collection, include non-localized pain experiences, and at least some instances of #$ExperiencingEmotion (q.v.). Note that, although they are indirectly related (see e.g. #$PurposefulMentalActivity), the sense of intentional described above is not to be confused with its other sense as an antonym of accidental . Nor is it to be confused with the logico-semantic concept of _intensional_ meaning. See also #$IntentionalMentalState, #$objectOfMentalSituation, and #$thinksAbout. bfde8dd4-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 The intersection of #$StrictlyMentalEvent and #$PurposefulAction, and also a specialization of #$IntentionalMentalEvent. Each instance of this collection is an event involving intentional mental activity on the part of at least one performer (see #$performedBy). Solving a math problem (cf. #$DoingMath), planning an attack and performing a thought experiment (cf. #$ThoughtExperimenting) are all examples of #$PurposefulMentalActivity. However, daydreaming or having undesired obsessive thoughts are not examples. A borderline example might be arriving at the solution to a math problem in one's sleep after intentionally working on the problem during the previous day. c14de554-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 COSMO note: the retriction requires that all Thinking occur at some Intellect, but the 'occursAt' relation is a type-level relation that does not require actual instantiation of the Intellect where the Thinking occurs. Cyc: A specialization of both #$IntentionalMentalEvent and #$StrictlyMentalEvent. Each instance of #$Thinking is a mental process with at least some propositional content (cf. #$Proposition), differing in this way from the mere experiencing of sensation or emotion (cf. #$ExperiencingEmotion). The collection includes both 'atomic' mental events of having a single thought with propositional content, and 'composite' mental events involving the processing or analyzing of thoughts. It is widely considered to be necessarily accompanied by consciousness (cf. #$Consciousness), but it is at least arguable whether this is really the case (consider as possible counterexamples subconscious thoughts, or the thinking of an intelligent machine). Instances of #$Thinking also need not necessarily be instances of #$PurposefulMentalActivity (q.v.) - consider obsessive thoughts, for instance. Notable specializations of this collection include #$Concentrating and #$GroupingThingsMentally. Note that as a specialization of #$StrictlyMentalEvent, #$Thinking does not include mental activities which essentially involve some relationship to extra-mental objects - such as, for instance, #$ThinkingAboutTheStateOfTheWorld. Thus, mental activities such as #$Evaluating and #$InventingSomething are specializations of #$ThinkingAboutTheStateOfTheWorld rather than of #$Thinking. bd58875c-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 mentionsTopic relates an AbstractDocument, abstract Proposition, or communication to one or more topics discussed in the document. The Topic can be of any type. There may be more than one topic, but there should be at least one. Peripheral or insignificant topics could be, but would not usually be expected to be mentioned using this relation. The domain is 'AbstractDocument' but the range - the topic - could be of any type at all. isMentionedIn relates an entity of any type - class, individual, relation, proposition - to some form of communication or text in which it is mentioned.. hasTopic relates a Document, Text, or Communication to one or more topics discussed in the Message. This is a specialization of 'mentionsTopic', and the Topics related by this relation would be expected to be more in focus than the Topics related by the 'mentionsTopic' relation. There may be more than one topic, but there should be at least one. Peripheral or insignificant topics are less likely to be mentioned using this relation than when using the 'mentionsTopic' relation. The more specific domain here is 'Message' but the range - the topic - could be of any type at all. NOTE that any of the arguments of a RelationInstance (subject, value, other arguments) is a topic of that Assertion. Linguistically, this relation can be phrased as (Doc is about Topic). A Message is a Document that is sent through some medium from a sender (which may be a group of people) to one or more recipients. hasIntendedRecipient points from a Message (a product of a Communication - an Event) to the intended recipient of that Message. This is more broad than just human linguistic communication, and includes recipients which may be animals (e.g. mating animals receiving mating signals) or automatons that do not have human-level intelligence.. describes relates a document or AbstractString or Specification or Proposition to some term or word that is defined or described in that information structure. Each 'ThinkingAboutSomething' is a Thinking which has some specific main topic. A Proposition is the abstract propositional content (i.e. the 'meaning') of some sentence, formula, or combination of sentences in any language. A Proposition is the actual meaning of a sentence or sentences in any language, and is independent of the language and of the symbol system used to encode the meaning. A related collection of Propositions is still considered as a Proposition; a prominent example is the body of accepted lore in some FieldOfStudy. Every Proposition has at least one topic related by the 'hasTopic' relation. There may be some temptation to use the subtypes of Proposition (Assertion, Axiom, Rule) as though they are symbolic objects - perhaps AbstractTexts. In casual conversation this will create no problems, and in fact it may not create problems in reasoning with the COSMO either, since both are abstract entities and not PhysicalObjects, and thus not disjoint. But it will be good practice to keep the propositional meanings separate from what are explicit though abstract linguistic representations of the meanings, wherever the distinction is clear. NOTE that this abstract notion of Proposition should not be conflated with an AbstractText that expresses that Proposition in symbols (usually linguistic symbols). An abstract 'Proposition' is related to such a symbolic representation by the relation 'hasAbstractRepresentation'. SUMO: Propositions are Abstract entities that express a complete thought or a set of such thoughts. As an example, the formula '(instance Yojo Cat)' expresses the Proposition that the entity named Yojo is an element of the Class of Cats. Note that propositions are not restricted to the content expressed by individual sentences of a Language. They may encompass the content expressed by theories, books, and even whole libraries. It is important to distinguish Propositions from the ContentBearingObjects that express them. A Proposition is a piece of information, e.g. that the cat is on the mat, but a ContentBearingObject is an Object that represents this information. A Proposition is an abstraction that may have multiple representations: strings, sounds, icons, etc. For example, the Proposition that the cat is on the mat is represented here as a string of graphical characters displayed on a monitor and/or printed on paper, but it can be represented by a sequence of sounds or by some non-latin alphabet or by some cryptographic form. OPENCYC 1: MAY 23, 2002\n A collection of intangible individuals. Each instance of #$Proposition is an abstract propositional thing that has some truth value in some context or world. A proposition is assumed to be representable (at least in principle) by a sentence in some formal or natural language. But it should _not_ be assumed that propositions are themselves intrinsically linguistic items in the way that sentences or formulae are. Indeed, propositions are often viewed as extra-linguistic, intensional entities that (while not sentences themselves) are represented or expressed by meaningful sentences (or, on some versions of this view, by concrete tokens of sentences). On such a view it is possible for distinct sentences (either from the same language or from different languages) to express the very same proposition; e.g. 'Snow is white', 'White is the color of snow', 'Schnee ist weiss'. (in German), and (arguably) '(#$relationAllInstance #$objectHasColor #$SnowMob #$WhiteColor)' (in CycL). Similarly, it is sometimes the case that a single sentence - when used in different contexts - will express distinct propositions; e.g. 'I am hungry.' said by you and said by me. Most formal languages (such as a first-order predicate calculus) and natural languages (such as English) include the resources for composing expressions that represent propositions from component expressions (that might or might not themselves represent other propositions).\n\nDOLCE: The abstract content of a proposition. Abstract content is purely combinatorial: from this viewpoint, any content that can be generated by means of combinatorial rules is assumed to exist in the domain of quantification (reified abstracts). Frrom Cyc: OPENCYC 1: MAY 23, 2002\nA specialization of #$AbstractInformationalThing. Each instance of #$Information-Content is an abstract object that can be the content, or meaning, of some token in some language. A pair of tokens of linguistic objects mean the same thing just in case each has the same content as the other. Instance of this collection can be used to represent the content of an instance of #$ConceptualWork. A Communication that involves the transfer of information via a LinguisticExpression. Generic 'Conversation' is a Communication between two or more IntelligentAgents that occurs with little time lag between sending and receipt of each unit Communication, and the expectation that each unit Communication from one Agent will receive a response after a brief interval from one of the other parties to the conversation. In COSMO, unlike in Cyc, this general concept is not necessarily performed via speech acts, but can be accomplished by sign language, by writing on paper in the presence of another, by texting,over modern cell phones, by instant messaging, or by rapid exchange of emails among two or more parties who are all on-line at the same time, or by any other means of rapid, real-time communication. For purely oral conversation, use 'OralConversation'. Cyc: Every #$Conversation includes at least two #$CommunicationAct-Single as #$subEvents, with the #$senderOfInfo in one being the #$recipientOfInfo in the other. COSMO: in COSMO a Promise is a LinguisticAssertion, not an Event. Cyc: An attribute associated with instances of #$CommunicationAct-Single. If a communication act has this attribute, then the #$senderOfInfo intends to carry out the action described in the act and is obligated to do so. bd588d19-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A PromisedThing is the Action which some agent agrees to do when making a Promise. SUMO; Instances of this Class commit the agent to some future course. For example, Bob promised Susan that he would be home by 11pm.. An Event in which a Promise is conveyed from one IntelligentAgent to another. This does not require anything in return. The restriction requires that for each instance of a PromisingEvent the content of the Promise must be represented - and vice versa.. Each AgreeingEvent is a Conversation between two parties that results in an Agreement, which is a mental object. In each AgreeingEvent, at least one party conveys a Promise to the other, to do something in the future. Therfore an 'AgreeingEvent' is not merely a conversation in which the parties 'agree' on some facts - this type of Event creates an Agreement to do something. A collection of complex information transfer events. Each instance of #$MultiDirectionalCommunication is an event in which more than one agent plays the #$communicatorOfInfo role. For example, a conversation or a debate, as opposed to a speech or lecture. The predicate #$infoContributed is used to correlate each sending agent with the information s/he transmits in such an event. For communication acts having only one sender, see #$CommunicationAct-Single. bd5891c4-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 COSMO note: removed 'compositePhysicalAndMentalEvent' as parent - we want to reserve that for individual actions, but a SocialOccurrence has multiple participants, and requiring specifying each agent is impractical. NOTE that a SocialOccurrence is not necessarily planned in advance, and terefore is not necessarily an in stance of 'Event-Organized'. For planned SocialOccurrences, use 'SocialGathering'. Cyc: A specialization of both #$PurposefulAction and #$CompositePhysicalAndMentalEvent. Each instance of #$SocialOccurrence is an action in which two or more agents take part. In many cases, #$SocialOccurrences involve communication among the participating agents. Some instances of #$SocialOccurrence have very elaborate role structures (e.g. a typical lawsuit), while others have fairly simple role structures (e.g. greeting a colleague at work). COSMO note: Note that InformationTransferPhysicalEvent, which may be carried out by machines at both ends, is also classified as a SocialOccurrence, since such communication is at this time (2007) always performed at the direction of a Person. NOTE also that the 'Agents' directly performing this action do not have to be people or organizations, they can be machines or software agents. bd588f3b-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 An 'Occasion' is an Event that has some particular significance to an IntelligentAgent. This is a broad, almost vague category, and each 'Occasion' should be related to some purpose or other type of Event; but there is no restriction as of rev789 to require that reference. Every HumanActivity is an Occasion; though routine activitues may not be Salient, each HumanActivity that is represented in an ontology will be salient by virtue of its being paid attention to. Each HumanActivity is an occasion in the sense of being potentially referrable in a phrase such as 'on the occasion when we were digging that ditch . . .". NOTE that a 'special ocasion' would be a more salient instance than the average instance of 'Occasion'. Includes but is broader than noun sense 1 of 'occasion' in WordNet: 1. (14) juncture, occasion - (an event that occurs at a critical time; 'at such junctures he always had an impulse to leave'; 'it was needed only on special occasions') A specialization of #$AnimalActivity. Each instance of #$HumanActivity is a spatially-localized action each of whose doers (see #$doneBy) is either a #$HomoSapiens or a group of humans (i.e. a #$Group all of whose members are #$HomoSapiens or groups of humans). bd588deb-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 isPerformedByAgent points from a type of Action to the type of Agent that performs that type of Action. This relation is used to add detail to certain action types that include in their meanings that they are performed by a certain type of Agent. This 'perform' relation includes the 'experiencer' case role for mental events. OPENCYC 1: MAY 23, 2002 A collection of 'objects' with temporal extent. Each instance of #$Agreement involves two or more parties, who agree that certain propositions should be true. Making the propositions true may require some action or commitment of wealth on the part of one or more of the #$agreeingAgents. Thus, instances of #$Agreement will usually involve some instances of #$Obligation. Note: Instances of #$Agreement and #$Obligation differ, however, in that an #$obligatedAgent is responsible for the truth of all of the propositions in an obligation. In an #$Agreement, some agents may not be responsible for all of the propositions in the agreement being true. For example, in a loan agreement, the borrower agrees to give the lender back the money, but the borrower is the only #$obligatedAgent for the repayment. Note that #$obligatedAgents need not be among the #$agreeingAgents in the agreement that involves or generates the obligation. For example, the Board of Directors of XYZCorporation may agree that some non-director will assume the post and duties of President of XYZCorporation. Moreover, #$agreeingAgents aren't always #$obligatedAgents; e.g., Wanda and Paul may agree that Paul alone is obligated to do some task. Examples include instances of #$PeaceAccord, #$LegalAgreement, #$InformalAgreement, #$BusinessPartnershipAgreement, #$WorkAgreement, #$SalesAgreement, #$MaintenanceAgreement, #$Reservation, #$Appointment, etc. Information-encoding-system[DOLCE]* DOLCE: An information encoding system is a description that involves information objects. They can be divided into 1) axiomatic systems, which provide roles and operations to define formal descriptions (e.g. theories), 2) combinatorial systems, which provide roles and operations to create valid information objects (e.g. grammars), 3) classification systems, which are contexts of (ev. ordered) lists of information objects, and 4) informal encoding systems, which provide roles and operations to define informal descriptions (e.g. narratives). A Theory is a specification describing a structure of some system, abstract or concrete. Theories (e.g. scientific) that describe concrete (physical) systems are usually created to explain some observed phenomenon. Theories that describe abstract (e.g. mathematical) systems may be created for any reason, sometimes just for the joy of describing an new and interesting structure of abstract elments. NOTE that a Theory is a subtype of 'Information-Content' in COSMO because although a theory may not be experimentally verified, it contains propositions that reflect the experience of its creator. A Theory will be a context in which certain assertions may be true, though the same assertions may not be true in other theories, or indeed may not be true anywhere other than in that particular theory. Theories may form a subsumption lattice, in which some theories have multiple subtheories. Every ontology (including this one) is a theory - most ontologies are intended to represent some aspect of the real world. 'violatesRule' relates an Event or EventType to some Rule or Theory or PropositionType that is violated by that Event. This can be used to describe actions violating human laws (crimes or petty violations), or MagicActions violating the laws of physics, or Events that violate the expectations of (and thereby disprove) some theory. A KnowledgeOrganizationSystem is a group of assertions that are created for the purpose of systematically describing some field of knowledge. They range from dictionaries through ontologies and executable specifications. A specialization of both #$Artifact-Generic and #$InformationBearingThing. Each instance of this collection is an artifact from which information is extracted by viewing it (note that a viewer may need to be familiar with an appropriate set of interpretive conventions in order to do this). Examples of #$VisualInformationBearingThing include handwritten letters, newspapers, sculptures, television sets, and neon signs. (Thus, the information content of #$VisualInformationBearingThings may or may not be propositional in nature.) In the proper conditions, instances of #$VisualInformationBearingThing produce instances of #$VisualImage (which, unlike instances of #$VisualInformationBearingThing, are instances of #$Event). For example, if one shines light on a photograph, a characteristic #$VisualImage is produced. Likewise, if one electrifies a neon sign, a #$VisualImage is produced. A notable specialization of this collection is #$StillImageSource - sources of #$VisualImage that do not move (which thus includes all the examples of #$VisualInformationBearingThing given above except for the television set). See also the predicate #$visuallyDepicts. COSMO note: this category has been interpreted as potentially representing visual signalling events (e.g. 'Gesture', and is therefore very generic. For physical objects bearing visual information, use 'StillImageSource' bd58cfb6-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 The collection of all contexts (all instances of #$Microtheory, q.v.) which contain assertions expressing the propositional attitudes (beliefs, desires, intentions) of some agent or group of agents. c10af09d-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A specialization of #$AspatialInformationStore. Each instance of #$Microtheory is an abstract informational thing that represents a context in Cyc. Each microtheory (or 'mt') serves to group a set of assertions together that share some common assumptions; the assertions in an mt constitute the content of that mt. Note that each assertion in the Cyc knowledge base must be explicitly stated to be true in at least one microtheory. Assertions stated to be true in one mt will also be true (by inference) in more specialized mts that depend on the content of that mt. For example, if something is true in the #$HumanSocialLifeMt (q.v.), then it should by default be true in the more specialized #$UnitedStatesSocialLifeMt (q.v.). Specialized microtheories are related to the more general microtheories on which they depend by the predicate #$genlMt (q.v.). Note that every query is made in some mt, and the answer one gets to a query depends on the mt in which it is asked, since the only assertions which can be used to answer a query in an mt are those explicitly stated to be true in that mt, or in some more general mt. See also the predicate #$ist, which is used to relate an assertion to the microtheories in which it is true. bd5880d5-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A specialization of both #$InformationStore and #$PartiallyIntangibleIndividual. Each instance of #$SymbolicThing symbolizes some thing or event or achievement, without describing it in any detail. Examples include halos (#$Halo-Symbolic), #$NationalAnthems, school colors, and physical objects such as national flags which are instances of the (notable) subcollection #$SymbolicObject. Note that instances of #$SymbolicThing can be #$InformationBearingThings or #$ConceptualWorks. They generally do not have propositional information (#$PropositionalInformationThing) contents - rather, they are typically associated (by an informed interpreter) with particular entities. To emotional interpreters, such as #$Persons, symbolic objects are often evocative of certain attitudes associated with the entities symbolized - such as nationalism, respect, school spirit, hatred, reverence, etc. #$SymbolicThing differs from #$Signal in that #$Signals are one-time-only occurrences, whereas #$SymbolicThings are open to their characteristic interpretation any time they are encountered. See also #$signifiesTo, #$signifies. c0aad036-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A SymbolicObject is an artifactual PhysicalObject created with the purpose of being or bearing some physical symbol that represents something other than the symbol itself; the represented thing may be abstract or physical. The symbolism of a SymbolicObject does not depend on language to convey its intended meaning; it is primarily graphic in nature. Cyc: A specialization of both #$SymbolicThing and #$HumanAccessibleIBO. Each instance of #$SymbolicObject is a #$SymbolicThing that has some material part (i.e. is an instance of #$PhysicalObject), and symbolizes some thing, event or achievement, without describing it propositionally in any detail. Examples include national flags, military medals and ribbons, an Oscar, a Crucifix, a caduceus, and printed trademark logos of commercial brands. Only some instances of #$SymbolicObject have the #$primaryFunction of serving as symbols (e.g. national flags, war memorials); others are symbolic in a secondary capacity (e.g. a gravestone symbolizes death but its primary function is as a marker), and/or acquire symbolic associations over time (e.g. Ellis Island). Examples of #$SymbolicObject include the #$ArcDeTriomphe, the #$StatueOfLiberty, the #$PyramidOfCheops, a hangman's noose, a Menorah, a white dove. Negative examples include #$NationalAnthems and #$Swastikas projected on walls, because these do not have a material part; for such symbols use the broader collection #$SymbolicThing. bd58cf26-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 The collection-intersection (and thus a common specialization) of #$Artifact, #$StillImageSource and #$HumanAccessibleIBO (qq.v.). Each instance of #$HardcopyInformationBearingObject is an human-created #$InformationBearingObject (IBO) in a hard format (e.g. written on paper, on wood, on palm leaves, engraved in metal, or carved on stone) that humans can obtain information from by viewing (if there is sufficient light) without using a computer or electronic device. In many cases the information is encoded in visual symbols, whose #$CommunicationConvention must be understood by anyone who would access the information. For example, the information may be stored as English text. Examples of #$HardcopyInformationBearingObject include: a billboard, a greeting card, a restaurant check, a magazine, an engraving by Rembrandt, a Picasso painting, and a hardcopy of a map with no text on it. Note that this collection does _not_ include IBOs embodied in magnetic media such as tape or disk (as the information they bear is not directly accessible to someone viewing them) or Braille books (as they are not instances of #$StillImageSource, whose information content must be accessed visually). bd58e00e-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 isDesignedToSupport relates some SupportingObject object type to the thingg(s) it was desgigned (by Agents or by evolution) to support. A supportingObject can be uniquely designed to support some individual object (as a pedestal for a statue) A SupportingObject is an ArtifactObject that was designed to serve as a support, to hold something in a particular place in a gravitational field. This is a very broad category, including chairs, lamp posts, and various platforms. IT also includes supports that are part of a path, such as a ladder. But it does not include floors or other integral parts of structures, or flexible supports such as a rope stretched across two supporting anchors, or a hammock stretched etween two trees. The categories will usually be classified by what the SupportingObject is designed to support. A chair, for example, is designed to support one person while sitting. A SupportingOrganismPart is an OrganismPart that is solid and serves to support other parts of the organism. The supporting function need not be its only evolved purpose, but it should be clearly important for the organism. skeletons (exo and endo), and tree trunks are examples. A specialization of both #$PartiallyTangibleProduct and #$SolidTangibleThing . Each instance of #$SolidTangibleArtifact is a partially tangible product that is also a solid. Instances include both solid objects (for example, instances of the collection #$Automobile) as well as portions of stuff in solid form (for example, instances of the collection #$Cloth). Note that items that are always sold as part of something else (for example, the instances of #$DiskSector) are not instances of #$SolidTangibleArtifact. bd58cf9a-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A Physical object having some graphical (non-text) content, It may be a physical representation of an AbstractImage (i.e. it may have an AbstractRepresentation), but it is not necessary to specify any instance of AbstgractImage for each instance of PhysicalImage. It can be a picture, drawing, or any other graphical thing. Writing is not usually considered as a graphical thing, but it is possible that some images may have writing in them, and images of writing are common. The distinction is in the way the entity is actually represented, abstractly and physically. A collection of visual images. Each element of #$StillImage is a static visual image. Such images are typically images reflected from, or generated by, objects that don't change in time, e.g. an illuminated photograph. Other examples: images from maps, x-rays, drawings, labels, or any constant projection of light. c0fd7fa2-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 isaSourceOf specifies what comes from a Source. What comes must be an Object (abstract or physical) or a Substance. COSMO note: This is a Cyc class that is interpreted to mean 'anything that can be seen and bears information'. This is not necessarily a PhysicalObject, as it may be lightwaves, but according to the Cyc definition of Stillimage (below), the image should be stable (a constant projection). Hoever, not every physicalObject is classified as a 'StillImageSource', only VisualInformationBearingObjects. It use Cyc 'Stillimage': A collection of visual images. Each element of #$StillImage is a static visual image. Such images are typically images reflected from, or generated by, objects that don't change in time, e.g. an illuminated photograph. Other examples: images from maps, x-rays, drawings, labels, or any constant projection of light. bff5ba08-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A specialization of both #$HumanAccessibleIBT and #$InformationBearingObject. Each instance of #$HumanAccessibleIBO is an object (i.e. an instance of #$PartiallyTangible) that can be interpreted by a #$Person to yield information. Examples include street signs, product wrappings and roulette wheels. #$InformationBearingObjects requiring a device to convert them into human understandable form (such as DVDs) are not included. Most instances of #$HumanAccessibleIBO are also instances of #$StillImageSource. Objects such as Braille book copies, however, are not (since they are not interpreted visually). Objects that are instances of #$HumanAccessibleIBT, #$StillImageSource and #$Artifact fall into the collection defined as the intersection of these three - #$HardcopyInformationBearingObject. bdd08ee2-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A RigidObject is a SolidObject that will not distort its shape greater than 10% in the vertical dimension when supported by three or four sharply pointed rigid objects, placed at the periphery of the RigidObject, in the Earth's gravitational field. This will exclude most semi-solid gels. Long beams may fail this test, though the same beam in a shorter length (having to support less mass in the middle) may pass the test. Thus rigidity is a property of objects, not of materials, and depends not only on the inherent hardness of a material, but its shape and size. A thin sheet of a material will not be rigid though a beam of the same material can be. COSMO: A SymbolicObject (an artifact) created as a symbol of something else, and bearing information. All texts and images of real-world things are examples. Approximate equivalents: InformationBearingObject (Cyc) ContentBearingObject (SUMO) COSMO note: Cyc interprets IBO to include utterances and gestures, but in COSMO this category is restricted to physical objects that are artifacts ('ArtifactObjects'), and excludes actions. In COSMO actions that contain information are included under 'InformationBearingThing'. OPENCYC 1: MAY 23, 2002 A specialization of both #$InformationBearingThing and #$CompositeTangibleAndIntangibleObject. Each instance of #$InformationBearingObject is an object that can be interpreted, by an interpreter understanding its conventions, to yield a chunk or chunks of information. #$InformationBearingObject includes all of the following: (1) artifacts made solely for the purpose of conveying information (e.g., a newspaper, or a children's science video); (2) artifacts that convey information in addition to their intended function (e.g., Neolithic pottery); and (3) non-artifacts, such as a person's fingerprints, gestures, and utterances, which may be interpreted to yield information. Note: 'an IBO' abbreviates 'an information bearing object'. Cf. #$InformationBearingWavePropagation. See also #$containsInformation. COSMO note: this category is considerd approximately equivalent to the SUMO 'ContentbearingObject' SUMO: (ContentBearingObject) Any SelfConnectedObject that expresses content. This content may be a Proposition, e.g. when the ContentBearingObject is a Sentence or Text, or it may be a representation of an abstract or physical object, as with an Icon, a Word or a Phrase. A Source is any of a wide variety of Objects from which something (substances, objects, energy, assets) 'flows' or can be 'withrawn' (in some sense, possibly metaphorical). This is interpreted very broadly, and can be a factory as a source of goods, a spring as a source of water, the sun as a source of energy, or a bank acount as a source of money. The basic notion is that something comes out of the Source - and that 'something' does not have to be beneficial (pollution can have a source). 'Source' is a Role that can be used to categorize objects so that a system can answer the question: 'Where can I get some X from?' There is no exact WordNet equivalent to this concept - it includes noun sense 5 of 'source' and part of sense 1: 1. (355) beginning, origin, root, rootage, source - (the place where something begins, where it springs into being; 'the Italian beginning of the Renaissance'; 'Jupiter was the origin of the radiation'; 'Pittsburgh is the source of the Ohio River'; 'communism's Russian root') 5. (31) source - (a facility where something is available) source source1n source5n A collection of #$InformationBearingThings, each of which contains information, for a #$Person who understands how to interpret it. Examples include a copy of the novel _Moby Dick_, a signal buoy, a #$Photograph, a #$Flag, an elevator sign in Braille, a map, a US dollar bill, a word in #$AmericanSignLanguage and a musical performance. #$InformationBearingThings that must be processed by some device (movie reels, #$PhonographRecords, #$DVD-Disks, etc.) are not included in this collection. An important specialization of this collection is #$HumanAccessibleIBO, composed of #$HumanAccessibleIBTs that are also objects (i.e,. instances of #$PartiallyTangible). Thus the copy of _Moby Dick_, the buoy, the photograph and the flag mentioned above are also #$HumanAccessibleIBOs -- but not the word in #$AmericanSignLanguage, nor the musical performance. bebb52e8-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A collection of all events in #$SocialOccurrence that can be called 'conflicts'. For each #$ConflictEvent CONF, there are at least two #$IntelligentAgents AGT1 and AGT2 such that (#$opponentsInConflict AGT1 AGT2 CONF) holds. For each #$ConflictEvent CONF, there are subevents ACT1 and ACT2 of CONF, which are #$PurposefulActions, and there are GOAL1 and GOAL2 such that (#$purposeInEvent AGT1 ACT1 GOAL1), (#$purposeInEvent AGT2 ACT2 GOAL2), and GOAL1 and GOAL2 are in conflict, i.e., (#$and GOAL1 GOAL2) is not consistent (in the current #$Microtheory). NOTE: a ConflictEvent can be friendly, as in a negotiation; it only requires that the goals have some element of conflict, where better for one party is worse for the other. Similar to SUMO: 'Contest' SUMO: A SocialInteraction where the agent and patient are CognitiveAgents who are trying to defeat one another. Note that this concept is often applied in a metaphorical sense in natural language, when we speak, e.g., of the struggle of plants for space or sunlight, or of bacteria for food resources in some environment. bf2126cb-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 #$PrivateSectorOrganization is a specialization of #$Organization. Each instance of #$PrivateSectorOrganization is an organization that operates in the private sector and has no governmental component. Instances of #$PrivateSectorOrganizations may be either #$CommercialOrganizations or #$NonProfitOrganizations. Examples of #$PrivateSectorOrganizations include #$IBMInc, #$Cycorp, #$FloridaNationalBank, and #$SierraClub. bff0f785-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 The collection of environments - i.e., #$Places that constitute one's surroundings. One environment is distinguished from others via its #$EnvironmentalAttributes and its exact location. COSMO NOTE: in WordNet a 'habitat' is a subtype of 'environment'. But a habitat is the normal *type* of living place of a *species* and an environment is the current *specific* location of an *individual*, so the two are not directly related in that manner. An Environment is a Place and a Habitat is a more abstract high-level Type. c0b5be8e-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 An EcologicalPlace can be either an EcologicalRegion or a PhysicalObject - such as the physical trees that make up a forest. This Type is intnetionally ambiguous so as to allow assertions about ecological niches without specifying whether it is the region of space or the actual physical objects in that space that are at issue. A collection of geographical regions. Each instance of #$EcologicalRegion is a region having one or more characteristic ecosystems. From knowledge of those ecosystems, we can posit whether certain organisms can forage, reproduce, and live successfully there. Information about ecological regions typically also includes what kinds of organisms are in fact found there. In theory, any arbitrary continuous region could be analyzed as an ecological region, but most regions identified in practice have some kind of sameness or systematic interconnection in their topology, climate, and biology. Examples: the #$WesternDesertOfEgypt, the #$GreatBarrierReef, the #$Amazon-Region. bd58ca27-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A specialization of both #$IntangibleIndividual and #$SomethingExisting. Instances of #$IntangibleExistingThing exist stably in time (unlike instances of #$Event), but lack any material parts (unlike instances of #$PartiallyTangible). Notable specializations of #$IntangibleExistingThing include #$DevisedPracticeOrWork and #$Agreement. bd58b123-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 'isaSubOrganizationOf' is the inverse of 'hasSubOrganization', and relates one Organization to another, larger Organization of which the smaller Organization is included as a part. The smaller Organization may be several levels down, as this relation is transitive. NOTE that this is a subproperty of 'wasCretedBy': all suborganizations are created by their parent organization. 'hasSubOrganization' is the inverse of 'isaSubOrganizationOf', and relates one Organization to another, smaller Organization which is a part of the larger Organization. The smaller Organization may be several levels down, as this relation is transitive. The collection #$Department is a subset of #$Organization. An element of #$Department is a major sub-organization of a business, government, or academic organization. An element of #$Department is part of the organization to which it belongs, NOT a separate legal entity (such as a partly or wholly owned subsidiary company), and it performs some of the activity of that organization. In Cyc, the collection #$Department includes generically what may be called a division, department, office, bureau, ministry, etc., within an actual organization. Common types of departments include those represented by the subsets #$LegalDepartment, #$SecurityDepartment, #$PayrollDepartment, #$AccountingDepartment, #$HumanResourcesDepartment, #$AcademicDepartment, and CustomerServiceDepartment (and many others). Coresponds to sense 1 of 'department' in WordNet: 1. (28) department, section - (a specialized division of a large organization; 'you'll find it in the hardware department'; 'she got a job in the historical section of the Treasury') bd588d1e-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 department department department1n GeographicalArea is (in spite of its name) a three-dimensional Region of space that is on or close to the surface of the Earth. This is the category that should be used to specify areas of the Earth, such as the areas defined by Countries and ruled by their governments. Although three-dimensional, most GeographicalAreas will be relatively thin and sheet-like in shape, as the areas of interest are close to the Earth's surface. COSMO note: in Cyc this was 'GeographicalRegion'. In COSMO, Geographical reasoning uses only the spatial points, areas and volumes that are defined relative to some set of Geodetic coordinates. The physical objects that occupy that region are related to the region, but are classified separately under 'GeographicalObject'. Note that to be consistent with SUMO usage, one-and two-dimensional regions are not included in this categeory. They can be represented by 'GeographicalRegion'. GeographicalArea (SUMO) includes Earth areas only SUMO: A geographic location on Earth, generally having definite boundaries. SUMO: Note that this differs from its immediate superclass Region in that a GeographicArea is a three-dimensional Region of the earth. Accordingly, all astronomical objects other than earth and all one-dimensional and two-dimensional Regions are not classed under GeographicArea. bd588009-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A specialization of #$Ellipsoid (q.v.). Each instance of #$Spheroid is an ellipsoid that is (at least) very nearly spherical in shape (see the specialization #$Sphere). The degree to which an ellipsoid may deviate from a perfect sphere and still qualify as a spheroid is difficult to specify precisely and partly depends on the context; but it seem correct in everyday contexts to consider (e.g.) #$PlanetEarth a spheroid and a jelly bean a mere ellipsoid. cc29be1e-e6cd-41d6-8eed-98a95b650fc7 A PhysicalObject that is approximately in the shape of a sphere (spheroid), such as PlanetEarth or a baseball.. Any planet orbiting any sun, including the Earth. We make the distinction in order to avoid specifying that the Earth is located in the 'OuterSpaceVacuum' The Planet Earth, orbiting Sol. The planet where humans evolved. By COSMO convention, to the Earth is not located in the OuterSpaceVacuum, which is all parts of the Universe that does not include the Earth. Some Properties of the Earth (http://www.rwic.und.edu/unitconversions.php) Mass of the earth = 5.98E24 kg Mass of the oceans = 1.32E21 kg Mass of the earth's atmosphere = 5.29E18 kg Mean radius of the earth = 6371 km Mean distance between earth and the sun = 149.7E6 km Mean gravitational acceleration at earth's surface = 9.807 m/s(squared) Speed of rotation of a surface point on the earth's equator = 460 m/s Angular velocity of the earth = 7.29E-5 /s 5.9736E27 hasStringLength relates an AbstractString to the length of that string, as an integer number of characters. StringOrLine is a (relatively) long thin limp object like a cord, but thinner. It is not necessarily fibrous, so a single polyester thread that is as thick as a string,used as a fishing line, will be an instance. For strings made of fibers only, use 'PieceOfString'. A Synonym for AbstractString. For the physical strings that are like thin cords or flexible lines, use 'StringOrLine'. An object, not an attribute: a filament-like object. The length/width ratio should be at least 6 (greater than a short LongAndThinThing which may be as small as 3) 416e907a-74bc-11d6-8000-00a0c99cc5ae A specialization of #$PartiallyTangible. Each instance of #$CordlikeObject is a partially tangible non-fluid object (so #$CordlikeObject is disjoint with #$FluidTangibleThing) whose length is significantly greater than either its height or width. Moreover, each instance of #$CordlikeObject has a high degree of flexibility. Notable specializations of #$CordlikeObject include the collections #$Nerve, #$Tape, and #$Cable. COSMO note: in Cyc tapes were also CordlikeObjects, but in COSMO Tape is a 'RibbonlikeObject'. bd58f581-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A generalization of the Cyc 'Filamentlike'. The length/width ratio should be at least 3, but often is longer. 416e907a-74bc-11d6-8000-00a0c99cc5ae Being LongAndThin, but not straight. Corresponds to adjective sense 1 in Wordnet: 1. (5) curved, curving -- (having or marked by a curve or smoothly rounded bend; 'the curved tusks of a walrus'; 'his curved lips suggested a smile but his eyes were hard') curved curved1adj The collection of instances of #$PartiallyTangible that are long and thin. #$LongAndThinThing is the #$ObjectTypeByPhysicalStructuralFeature that characterizes a tangible object which has one dimension whose length exceeds that of each of the other two dimensions by at least a factor of three. E.g., pencils, straws, telephone wire, submarines, skyscrapers. Cf. #$SheetShaped. 8797c068-74bb-11d6-8000-00a0c99cc5ae hasTendency relates individual Objects, ObjectTypes, substances or SubstanceTypes to some attributes indicating a Tendency (Disposition, proclivity) that that attribute has to behave in a certain way, especially over some period of time. A LimpObject is a PhysicalObject that is Limp. A 'PieceOfString' would be the prototype of a LimpObject. Things which are #$Deformable will give way to some degree when force is applied. They may or may not spring back to shape after the pressure is released. e96ee736-74ba-11d6-8000-00a0c99cc5ae An attribute of PhysicalObjects specifying that they can bend to some extent and do not retain their original shape when some force is applied (though they may regain their original shape when the force is removed). This is a general category of attribute which can take several degrees. In Cyc this concept is in effect a PhysicalObject that is flexible, but in COSMO the attribute and the object are separate concepts. For the Cyc notion of a flexible object, see 'FlexibleObject'. Flexibility can be a property of substances, but is more appropriately assigned to objects, since the degree of bending for any given force will depend on the dimensions of an object and where the force is applied. This attribute includes all perceptible degrees of flexibility. A sphere or cube of rigid material such as solid plastic, rock, metal, or glass should not be characterixed as flexible in any degree, though they may be 'Compressible'., 'flexible' can be distinguished by degrees of flexibility: (1) 'slightly flexible', meaning that an object such as a metal beam or airplane wing, or wooden plank, is relatively rigid, but can flex to some extent (perhaps not much more than 10% of its length) when some pressure is applied at the point furthest from the point where it is fixed to an immovable object. This property is not disjoint with 'Rigid' or 'Stiff'. (2) 'bendable' (3) 'foldable' (4) 'creasable' As of version 0.32 not all of these distinctions are included in COSMO, and none have been axiomatized. Cyc: (the object, not the attribute) The collection of instances of #$PartiallyTangible that can be flexed, twisted, contorted. #$Flexible objects which retain their contorted shape are instances of #$Bendable (q.v.); #$Flexible objects which vigorously bounce back to their original shapes when contorted are instances of #$Elastic. cb70e488-74be-11d6-8000-00a0c99cc5ae A #$SpatialThingTypeByDimensionality and a specialization of #$GeometricallyDescribableThing, #$TwoOrHigherDimensionalThing, and #$ShapedThing (qq.v.). Each instance of #$ThreeDimensionalGeometricThing is a three-dimensional geometrically-describable object. Examples include spatially-localized objects, such as the Pentagon, as well as abstract 3-D geometric objects. Specializations of this collection include #$Polyhedron, #$Ellipsoid, and #$Hemisphere. SUMO: The class of GeometricFigures that have position and an extension along three dimensions, viz. geometric solids like polyhedrons and cylinders. c0fbbe61-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A specialization of both #$RoundObject and #$ThreeDimensionalGeometricThing (qq.v.). Each instance of #$Ellipsoid is a three-dimensional object such that the planar sections along its respective internal axes are #$Ellipses. In other words, the shape of such objects should be roughly describable by taking some two dimensional ellipse and rotating it around its major axis in three-space. Note that #$Sphere and its generalization #$Spheroid are specializations of #$Ellipsoid. bfd0a066-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A MacroscopicObject that is much larger than a Person, i.e. it should be bigger than a large house. there is no upper limit on the size. A surface attribute meaning that the surface's overall shape is dominated by an outward bulge or mound, or consists of projecting corners between planes. In most contexts, it may have relatively small subregions which are concave or flat, etc., so long as overall shape is convex. Viewing something as convex assumes a perspective. From the opposite perspective, on the 'other side', a #$Convex surface would look #$Concave. 5b6cb4b4-74be-11d6-8000-00a0c99cc5ae A specialization of #$PhysicalObject. Each instance of #$ConvexTangibleObject is a tangible object that is convex; i.e., that has no significant concave surfaces, cavities or crevices (where the size of allowable minor concavities may depend on the context). Each instance of #$ConvexTangibleObject occupies about the same space as its convex hull - see #$ConvexHullFn and #$ConvexHullSpaceFn. A solid physical sphere or cube is an instance of #$ConvexTangibleObject, but a cup or doughnut cannot be. c0b9215a-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 COSMO: collect all Cyc paths here. An instance of #$Collection, and a specialization of #$Path-Generic. Each instance of #$Path-Simple is a path with two distinct ends that do not overlap each other (in the case of spatial paths, the two ends are spatially disjoint). Since no instance of #$Path-Simple has ends that join at one point, #$Path-Simple is disjoint with #$Path-Cyclic. Although instances of #$Path-Simple have distinct ends, some instances may have more than two things that are its end-points . For example, a path between Austin and Pittsburgh can also be a path between Texas and Pennsylvania. Notable specializations of #$Path-Simple include #$Pipe-GenericConduit, #$Nerve, and #$Stream. bd588e69-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A specialization of both #$Path-Generic and #$EnduringThing-Localized (qq.v.). Each instance of #$Path-Spatial is a path that has spatial extent, and that joins spatially located things. So instances of #$Path-Spatial include roads, corridors, wires, blood vessels, and nerves; however, purely abstract paths, such as those in kinship diagrams and mathematics, are _not_ instances of #$Path-Spatial. Instances of #$Path-Spatial may be pre-existing paths in a #$CustomarySystemOfLinks (q.v.) or they may be paths in some specially specified #$PathSystem (q.v.) consisting of spatial paths. c095e890-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 servesAsaPathFor relates a Path-Physical to some physical object that can move more easily along that path than if the path were absent. This relation can answer the question 'what moves along this path?' Note that we can have paths for electricity and light waves (optical fibers), because electrons and photons are considered as physical objects in the COSMO ontology. COSMO-TODO: This is a relation that should be defined on types, i.e. a particular type of path typically serves for a particular type of object (that can move along it). To avoid excessive use of metaclasses, at this point (v0.2) this relation is used as a relation on instances, and used in restrictions, which do not express precisely what is intended. A general metatype for physical objects may be needed, but may be avoidable. COSMO note: In Cyc a 'Path-Customary'. A Path-Customary is reinterpreted as 'Path-Physical' in COSMO, being a linear arrangement of physical material that permits or assists something to 'move' in some sense along the path. It is therefore a physical object, and certain types of communications 'channels' such as a point-to-point radio link, do not qualify. because the 'path' involved (the 'ether') does not assist the movement of the signal. At this point we have not formalized the notion that it is easier (takes less effort) for objects to move along a path than to move where that kind of path does not exist. Note that we add a restriction specifying that every instance of path must have some instance of PhysicalObject that can move along it. This existential should not be too burdensome, since we can generally mention some individual physical object that *can* move (not necessarily does move) along every path tht is instantiated. Cyc: A specialization of #$Path-Spatial. Each instance of #$Path-Customary is a spatial path which was either designed as a path by some intelligent agent, or which has a significant known function as a path for movement. Examples include roads, railroads, sea-lanes, cowpaths, boardwalks, tubes, channels, blood vessels, fibers, wires, and communication links. An instance of #$Path-Customary may be either an instance of #$Path-Simple (in which case it would be a path with two distinct ends, not forming a cycle) or an instance of #$Path-Cyclic. bee87cc9-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 COSOMO note: 'Tendency' is an AttributeValue that specifies how objects will normally behave over some interval of time. An instance of 'Tendency' can be complex, including multiple possible ways an object may behave, depending on different situations or stimuli. This is an AttributeValue of Objects or Substances that behave according to physical laws, and not a conscious disposition to act that is observed in Animals. The animal disposition to act in specific ways is represented by the type 'BehavioralDisposition', and its subtypes, and is not an AttributeType, but a mental state (a subtype of MentalEvent). This distinction reflects the fact that a 'tendency' of inanimate things to undergo natural processes (e.g. decomposition) arises from different kinds of causes than dispositions to behave in som specific way. @ToDo: the detailed structure of tendency has not yet (v0.54) been elaborated. In BFO this Type is called 'Disposition' but the term 'Tendency' is used in COSMO. This high-level category is very general. Specializations of 'Tendency' can be attributes of inanimate objects or of animate objects, and can point to simple physical behavior, such as the tendency of heavier-than-air objects to fall to the Earth, or of chemical behavior, such as the tendency of organic materials to decompose, or of animal and human behavior, such as the tendency of animnals to get hungry over time, the tendency of geographical features (e.g. mountains) to stay where they are for a very long time. The properties referenced by a Tendency may also be implied in other relations (such as the laws of physics, chemistry and biology), but the 'Tendency' Type is useful to provide a cumulative aggregated description of the *significant* behaviors of objects that are likely to affect the course of events in some real-world situation. In a way, assigning a Tendency to an Object can help in resolving the 'Frame Problem', which reflects the inability to predict with accuracy how conditions may change over time. If Tendencies are assigned with realistic probabilities, then the state of a system at some time in the future will be more accurately predictable than in the absence of such knowledge. For most problems that have been modeled in computer systems, the model has been simplified to make it tractable, but to deal with real-world situations, the complexity of reality must be represented in some way. This category of 'Tendency' is one tool with with to do so. 'Tendency' is an AttributeValue, rather than an AttributeType. Thus the tendency ('OrganicDecomposition') of organic tissue that is no longer part of an organism to decompose (due to chemical, biochemical, and bactrial processes) would be one subtype of 'Tendency'. It would be an Attribute of tissues, and would be one of several AttributeValues that are values for the AttributeType 'Stability'. There is some relation between tendencies and QualitativeAttributes, so Tendency subtypes may be deisngated as instances of QualitativeAttributeType, and be used wuth the ;'hasQualitativeAttribute' relation, as well as the 'hasTendencey' relation. The implications of either relation should be the same, when a FOL representation is implemented. BFO Definition: A realizable entity that always or with a significant degree of regularity initiates a process or transformation in the independent continuant it is a disposition of, under specific circumstances. A general formula for dispositions is: X (object) has the disposition D to (transform, initiate a process) R under conditions C. BFO Examples: the disposition of vegetables to decay when not refrigerated, the disposition of a vase to break if dropped, the disposition of blood to coagulate, the disposition of a patient with a weakened immune system to contract disease disposition The BFO term for 'Tendency'. A less common term for 'Tendency', . A less common term for 'Tendency', . A less common term for 'Tendency', . This AttributeValue and its subtypes can be used to indicate the expected behaviors of PhysicalObjects under certain conditions. The likelihood of shape change over time varies dramatically as one goes from solid objects to liquid and gaseous ones. The subtypes of this Type will specify how shapes may change for certain Types of objects under certain conditions. A TendencyToDroop is the characteristic Tendency of objects that are 'Limp', in that, when held by one edge or end so that that end is pointed horizontally, the remainder of the object will curve downward toward the Earth (near the Earth's surface). Some stiffness of a 'Limp' object (such as a piece of paper) may cause the direction of a 'droop' to increase only gradually over some distance from the fixed anchor point, until it reaches the final direct-downward direction. A very limp string will point downward at a short distance (millimeters) from the anchor point. This tendency will depend not only on the substance composition of an object, but of its shape and size, and the manner in which it is anchored to a fixed holding point; a piece of paper may droop if held out flat by one edge, but may not droop at all if curled up.. Limp is an attribute of objects that have little resistance to bending, and when held by one end in gravity, the middle will already be bent downward. This is the property of string, and is the opposite of 'Rigid'. An #$ObjectType and a specialization of #$OneOrHigherDimensionalThing (q.v.). Each instance of #$ShapedThing is a spatial object that has some well-defined shape (though what counts as a well-defined shape can vary from context to context); see #$objectShapeType. Specializations of #$ShapedThing include #$TwoDimensionalGeometricThing and #$AnimalShapedThing. Contrast with #$AmorphousThing. c0946b98-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 Rigid is an attribute of objects that strongly resist bending; it is a quality that occupies the higher range of 'Stiff' - droop should be less than 2 degrees. This is relative to size and shape. A 4mm wide aluminum rod only a few inches long may have no perceptible droop when held horizontally, but a rod of similar diameter and 10 feet long may droop very noticeably from one end to the other. The longer length would not be classified as 'rigid'. See also 'Semirigid' - the property of things that can deform to some perceptible degree under pressure. Each subtype of Capability is a type of action that some Object can perform or assist in performing. One subtype of this is 'Function', specifically a type of action for which an object has been designed, either by some IntelligentAgent or by Evolution. @ToDo: more elaboration needed. NOTE the triangular relation: an Artifact hasDesignFunction which is an ActionType, A Capability or Function wasRealizedByAction which is an *instance* of an Event or Action Type.. A specialization of both #$GeometricallyDescribableThing and #$ShapedThing. Each instance of #$RoundObject is a two- or three-dimensional object with a round shape. Specializations of #$RoundObject include #$Circle, #$Ellipse, #$Sphere and #$RingShapedObject. Examples include spatially localized objects, such as the equator, as well as abstract shapes. COSMO NOTE: This is an approximate concept. We included mostly rounded objects with some edges, such as lenses and other disks-shaped objects in this category. For 'diameter' relations, the largest diameter would be what is specified. A RoundObject will in general have no acute angles that are prominent or necessary: a lens that has sharp edges is still a RoundObject because the sharp edges occupy a very small part of the lens, and are not essential to its properties. NOTE that being Convex does not imply that one is also Round - Convex objects can have sharp edges. c1005f91-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 Stiff is an attribute of objects that resist bending somewhat, but may not be as resistant as something that is Rigid. This is relative to size and shape, and relative to other objects of similar size and composition. To be 'stiff' an Object should not droop noticeably ( (by less than 5 degrees from horizontal) when held horizontally at one end. A short length of a rod of a certain diameter may be stiff, but a longer length may not be. For a 'Card','Stiff' means al least that it is stiffer than a piece of paper of 24 pound stock. OuterSpace is any part of the region beyond the limits of the Earth's atmosphere, including locations on or inside of other planets. It is disjoint with GeographicalArea. It is also disjoint with locations under the Earth's surface (which are not included in GeographicalArea). Called 'SpaceRegion' in Cyc and SUMO: Cyc: A specialization of both #$SpatialThing and #$IntangibleIndividual (qq.v.) whose instances are regions of space that exclusively act as possible locations for other spatial objects, and thus are immobile. A space region might be three-, two-, one-, or zero-dimensional; and spatial objects occupy such regions accordingly. Three-dimensional space regions (see #$ChunkOfSpace) can be occupied by solid objects. Two-dimensional space regions (or #$SpaceSurfaces) can be occupied by a purely two-dimensional objects. And similarly for one-dimensional space regions (#$SpaceLines) and zero-dimensional space regions (#$SpacePoints). Another important specialization of #$SpaceRegion is #$SpaceRegion-Empirical, whose instances are pieces of the embedding space for spatio-temporal objects (see #$SpatialThing-Localized). For more on spatial location and occupancy, see #$AbsoluteLocationalPredicate and its instances. SUMO: The class of all Regions which are not GeographicAreas. be5c5d8b-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 The Cyc and SUMO terms for 'OuterSpaceRegion' COSMO note: In Cyc this was a subtype of 'Microtheory' but this seems to unnecessarily broaden the meaning of 'Microtheory' to include any information ('Memory' is a subtype of PropositionalinformationThing'). In COSMO PropositionalInformationThing is made a direct subclass of Information-Content, and the link to Microtheory is severed. This abstract notion includes information represented on physical objects of any kind, from the brains of people to data storage media, provided that the information is propositional. For this purpose, we include simple images as being propsitional information, because an image encodes spatial relation information that could be represented as logical propsitions (the head bone connected to the neck bone, etc.) Cyc:A specialization of both #$InformationStore and #$Microtheory. Each instance of #$PropositionalInformationThing (or PIT ) is an abstract object - a chunk of information consisting of one or more propositions. The propositional content of a PIT is not essentially encoded in any particular language, and it may be representable in many languages. PITs are used to represent the informational contents of #$InformationBearingThings. Objects or events which are instances of #$InformationBearingThing are linked to the abstract PIT contents they embody using the predicate #$containsInformation (see also the function #$PITOfIBTFn). An instance of #$PropositionalInformationThing may be something as simple as the information content of a command to stop one's vehicle, expressed in a road sign or in a traffic officer's gesture, or it may be something as complex as the entire contemporary knowledge of #$Mathematics, embodied in many and various sources. bd5880a8-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 The collection of Microtheories each containing those propositions that describe what some #$Agent needs to be true. This may be distinct from what the #$Agent wants to be true, and depends on some additional assessment of the #$Agent's need by someone else. It may include physical, financial or formal legal 'needs' of the #$Agent. bd5906ae-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 This type merges the Cyc 'SupposedToBeMicrotheory' and 'CodeOfConduct' - renamed to make clear the interpretation of this category in COSMO. In COSMO, RulesForConduct is a Group containing at least one 'Rule', and possibly other elements, such as descriptions of the history or purpose of the Rules. NOTE that the Rules contained in each set of RulesforConduct each refer to some desired FutureSituation. But at this point (v0.3) that future situation or situations is referenced only by the Rules individually, not by this aggregate concept of a set of Rules. To specify what is desired by a set of Rules, create the individual Rules, and from those Rules point to the states that each Rule specifies as desired. Cyc 'SupposedTobe Microtheory' Cyc: A specialization of #$Microtheory. Each instance of #$SupposedToBeMicrotheory is a microtheory that describes how things are supposed to be according to some source. Instances of this collection can be used to represent things like the policies of a company, the laws of a country, the tenets of a religion, the rules of proper conduct for employees of a particular corporation, etc. The assertions in a #$SupposedToBeMicrotheory may or may not describe the world as it actually is. Examples instances include #$BasicWesternLegalConceptsMt, #$SportsRulesOf-BoxingSportsEvent, #$CycStaffCalendar, and #$OfficeCodeOfConductMt. Cyc: CodeOfConduct: An instance of #$MicrotheoryType, and a specialization of #$Obligation. Each instance of #$CodeOfConduct is a microtheory containing rules and/or expectations governing the behavior of those agents subject to it. bd58b164-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 bd5895c7-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 An AbnormalOrganism is an Organism in which some typical feature of the adult form is either imperfectly developed (as by a developmental problem), or had developed and was altered to a less functional form. An immature form in which the normal functions are not yet developed . are not instances of this category, but of 'ImmatureOrganism'. NOTE carefully that in COSMO the category 'Organism' is intended to represent typical adults forms of an organism. Therefore we can make certain necessary assertions about an 'Organism' without being concerned about exceptions. When exceptional circumstances are encountered, one should use the catgegory 'ImmatureOrganism' or 'AbnormalOrganism'. Rather than reify such categories for each organism type, they can be generated by use of functions on the typical organism Type. If functions are not available in some implementation, reification may be necessary. TextualMaterial is a PhysicalObject that has some text (linguistic symbols) written on it in some language, and the text should be a significant part of the purpose of creating the object, not just an incidental identification mark or graffiti. If an Object is not originally textual (e.g. blank paper), but had text added for the purpose of conveying information via the text, and the main function of the object then becomes to hold that text, that object become textual material after the text is added. A building wall with elaborate graffiti is not textual material, though the physical material of the graffiti marks themselves (located on the wall) could be classified as textual material. In SUMO called simply 'Text'. SUMO: LinguisticExpression or set of LinguisticExpressions that perform a specific function related to Communication, e.g. express a discourse about a particular topic, and that are inscribed in a CorpuscularObject by Humans. COSMO note: This is a physical text, so it is not an AbstractSymbolicObject, and therefore we have removed 'InformationStore' as a parent, and changed the parent 'InformationBearingThing' to 'InformationBearingObject'. Cyc: A specialization of #$InformationBearingThing (IBT). Each instance of #$TextualMaterial is an IBT a significant part of whose informational content is both (i) encoded in some #$CommunicationConvention (q.v.), usually a #$Language, and (ii) represented or displayed in a spatial format. Examples include a copy of a newspaper printed in English using the Roman alphabet, a copy of a book printed in English using Braille, and a poster written in Chinese characters. Condition (i) excludes things like hardcopies of drawings, while condition (ii) excludes things like magnetic tapes containing recorded speech. A piece of textual material always involves one or more spatially-localized representations - usually physical inscriptions (see #$CharacterStringToken-Inscribed) - of #$CharacterStrings (q.v.). Textual materials are usually tangible objects (such as the examples given above), but are sometimes intangibles like patterns of light projecting words onto walls or screens. Specializations of #$TextualMaterial include #$OfficialDocument and #$NonPublishedText. Note that, while there is considerable overlap between #$TextualMaterial and #$HardcopyInformationBearingObject, these collections differ in that the latter both includes IBTs that involve no character-string representations and excludes intangibles of any sort. bd5904c7-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 The SUMO equivalent of 'TextualMaterial'. The collection of all contexts which contain assertions expressing the desires of some agent or group of agents. beb40074-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 SUMO: This is the subclass of ContentBearingObjects which are language-related. Note that this Class encompasses both Language and the the elements of Languages, e.g. Words. COSMO NOTE: This SUMO concept is a PhysicalObject. Most linguistic concepts in COSMO are abstract, though they will oftenhave physical representations. Most reasoning about information objectsin COSMO is done with the subtypes and instances of 'AbstractSymbolicObject'. LinguisticExpression[SUMO_only] isTheProductOf relates an Object (abstract or physical) to the PhysicalEvent in which it was created. NOTE that more than one Event can give rise to a specific product, therefore there may be more than one value of this relation on any given object or substance. A Change is a Difference in some attribute of a single Object at one time, compared to the same attribute at an earlier time. For abstract objects, the difference may be before or after some operation, such as a mathematical operation - therefore the Change is not necessarily situated in time, but can be on some abstract dimension of change. This type has some similarities to a BecomingEvent in that it has a participant and a property before the change, and a property after. But it is narrowly focused on changes in a single participant, and is not as flexible in representing Events as would be an instance of Event. Corresponds to sense 2 of noun 'change' in WordNet: 2. (45) change - (a relational difference between states; especially between states before and after some event; 'he attributed the change to their marriage') change change change2n 'hadAffectedObject' points from an Event to one of the objects that participated in the Event, and (may have) had one of its properties changed. The Object pointed to must be one whose Property(ies) are one of the 'fluents' that is a value of the FunctionalProcess that results in the Event. This relation captures the notion of a 'patient' in the usual Event representations, being the notion of something that was 'acted on' in an Event. In COSMO it is not necessary that the object of this relation actually have some property changed - something may be 'touched' in an event and fulfill the role of the thing 'acted on' without any of its perceptible properties actually being changed. This is similar to case relations that are labeled as 'patient' - the thing acted on in an Event. A related relation that relates Actions to the types of things that are affected is 'isAnActionOnType'. For static events, representing a state continuing unchanged over some period of time, the Object(s) that is 'affected' by the Event is the Object(s) whose properties ('fluents') are unchanged in that interval, which will be the Objects whose state the ontologist intends to describe with that Event representation. 'hadObjectPerceived' points from an Event to one of the objects or substances that was perceived or detected, by any means, animal senses or mechanical (including optical) detectors. This is used for Events of perception, when the Object perceived may not be 'affected' and therefore it would be inappropriate to use 'hadAffectedObject'. 'hadObjectObserved' points from an Event of seeing or observing to one of the objects or substances that was seen, by any means, animal senses or mechanical visual detectors.. 'hasObjectChanged' is a specialized relation, relating a Change in some object or substance to the Object or substance that has changed. The Object may be abstract, and the Change can be any operation (such as a mathematical operation), not merely an Event situated in time. 'hasAttributeBefore' is a specialized relation, relating a Change (in Attribute values) to the value before the change. The corresponding relation, pointing to the value after the change, is 'hasAttributeAfter'. NOTE that because abstract Changes can be represented (the rotation of a geometric figure) that are not situated in time, the 'before' and 'after' do not necessarily relate to positions on the time line. 'hasAttributeAfter' is a specialized relation, relating a Change (in Attribute values) to the value after the change. The corresponding relation, pointing to the value before the change, is 'hasAttributeBefore'. NOTE that because abstract Changes can be represented (the rotation of a geometric figure) that are not situated in time, the 'before' and 'after' do not necessarily relate to positions on the time line. Age is the quantitative measure of an Age. Its units will be units of time. It is a Difference between the reference time (usually 'now') and the time at which something was born or created. In COSMO units such as 'yearsOld', 'monthsOld' and 'daysOld' are use as the units for Age. The OrderedPair is the same Object at different times, and the Attribute is 'time point at which the object exists'. 'causedChange' relates an Event to a Difference (an attributeValue) caused by the Event. A SupportingWheel is a wheel that was designed to serve as the support for a wheeled conveyance. Note that wheels on airplanes are considered supporting wheels, even though airplanes are not WheeledTransportationDevices (which must use **only** wheels to assist their movement); the wheels on an airplane do support it while the plane is moving on the ground.. The wheels on a wheelbarrow, or on a push cart are also supporting wheels. The small wheels on the casters of a piece of movable furniture are borderline members of this class. Note that SupportingWheels are RigidObjects, and should not distort more than 10% (by design) when supporting their own weight. They may distort more when supporting a vehicle, or, if inflatable, when flat (though not functional when flat, as an Artifact it still retains its identity as a SupportingWheel, with a "non-functional' or 'poorly functional' attribute). A Wheel is a SolidTangibleArtifact that is at least approximately discoid in shape, circular and significantly thinner in width than the diameter of the circle. Wheels include things like the geared wheels of machines and clocks, so perfect circularity is not required. Note that wheels are always designed to be part of a larger object, though they are not necessarily installed before they are destroyed. Cyc: The collection of all instances of the most general kind of wheel. Each instance is a disk-shaped thing which can be rotated on an #$Axle which typically goes through the center of its circular cross-section. #$Wheels are found on #$LandTransportationDevices, serving the function of allowing #$RollingOnASurface for such devices. Wheels may take the form of #$Gears, parts of a #$Pulley, or may be present instead of ball bearings in places where a device needs to roll against a surface - like on the edges of some #$GarageDoors, which roll in a track when they are raised (#$LiftingAnObject). bd58af2b-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 'hasReturnValue' points to the last argument in the argument list - in RDF, it is the object; when a relation is a simple function, this argument will be the return value of the function. For example, in the relation instance: (hasColor Car23 RedColor) . . . the entity 'RedColor' is the value of the RelationInstance. Simple Functions are functional relations that are functional in the last argument; a Function is a special kind of relation that can be used to create a 'function term' - a term that is in the form of a RelationInstance. Thus we may have a function called 'TheMotherOf' and it could be used to create a term of the form: (TheMotherOf PrinceWilliam). That term could be used to represent the person who is the mother of PrinceWilliam. Formally, in the version of COSMO that will be in a CL-compliant form, such functions are relations that have one more argument (i.e. the value) than appears in the funciton term. In the above case, the value of the term could be specified by an assertion in the form: (TheMotherOf PrinceWilliam PrincessDiana). If the formalism permits, the same meaning could be asserted by an assertion of the form: (equals (TheMotherOf PrinceWilliam) PrincessDiana). The two would be equivalent. The ability to properly interpret functions will depend on the CL implementation. hasSubject points to the subject of a RelationInstance, the first argument in RDF or a CL-compliant format. hasSubject points to the relation (in OWL, the Property) which relates the arguments; of a RelationInstance. In the special form of a RelationInstance, the 'topic' specified in the relation 'hasTopic' will be any of the arguments, including the subject, of a RelationInstance (but not the relation name). Therefore this relation is a subproperty of 'hasTopic'. Each instance of RelationInstance is an Assertion structured as an ordered n-tuple, (an instance of List) representing one instance of a relation among two or more entities. Certain concepts in COSMO are represented as subtypes of 'RelationInstance', such as Obligation and Debt. This type is used to reify relations so that they can be discussed as an object. Each RelationInstance must have at least two arguments (role fillers). The number of arguments can be specified by the 'hasCardinalityNumber' relation, which would point to an integer which is one greater than the arity of the relation; the cardinality specifies the total number of elements in the list, which includes the relation itself. The roles (arguments) in each RelationInstance are specified by relations on each instance: 'hasRelation' points to the relation (in OWL, the Property) which relates the arguments; 'hasSubject' points to the subject as it would appear in an RDF triple; 'hasReturnValue' points to the last argument in the argument list - in an RDF triple, it is identical to the object; when a relation is a simple function, this argument will be the return value of the function. 'hasSecondArgument' points to the second argument of a relation with arity three or higher, but never to the value; 'hasThirdArgument' points to the third argument of a relation with arity four or higher, and never to the value; etc.; The ordering of the component elements (relation and arguments) in a RelationInstance does not have to be fixed, but if it does not use the format of having the relation name first and value last, it should have a mapping to that ordering (a procedure that converts one to the other) so that the relations ('hasRelation','hasReturnValue' 'hasSubject', etc.) specifying the components of the RelationInstance will have the same meaning regardless of the ordering. For example, a RelationInstance using the SKIF format will have the relation name first: (hasBirthMother PrinceWilliam PrincessDiana) This can be rendered in ESKIF with the order of the first two elements reversed: {PrinceWilliam hasBirthMother PrincessDiana} The meaning is the same in both cases, and the relations on 'RelationInstance' will return exactly the same elements in both cases. This corresponds to sense 1 of 'relation' in WordNet: 1. (27) relation - (an abstraction belonging to or characteristic of two entities or parts together) relation relation relation1n A MentalObject that specifies in a Proposition how one IntelligentAgent is related to another. One example is an Obligation. This is a broad category. To have a Responsibility is to have a certain SocialRelation to some Event, past, future, or hypothetical, in which the Agent with the responsibility participates. This is also treated in 'ResponsibilitySituation' and the exact logical representation of these concepts in COSMO has not been finalized. @ToDo - relations between Responsibility and ResponsibilitySituation. The restriction on 'refersToExternalEntity' requires that each instance of Responsibilty point to the Action or ActionType that the Agent is responsible for. To have a Responsibilty for some past Event, the Agent with the Responsibility must have performed the Event or must have been able to prevent it by reasonable effort. See, e.g. the subtype 'Fault'. Agents are related to their Responsibilities by the relation 'hasResponsibility'. A subtype of Responsibility is an Obligation, which represents a situation where the Agent with the Obligation must perform some FutureSituation, or suffer some negative consequences. This differs from the parent type Responsibilty in that Responsibilty can relate to past situations - a person can be responsible for having performed some action - and the consequences of that past Action may be positive - the Agent may get credit for doing something praiseworthy. WordNet mixes this concept into senses 1 and 2 of 'Responsibility'; 'Responsibility' in COSMO includes 'Obligation' as a subtype, so WN sense 1 is closest to this type; however sense 3 is interpreted as the trait of being habitually consciencious in discharging one's responsibilites, and is not included here, even though the example seems to be an example of sense 2 (!) 1. (17) duty, responsibility, obligation - (the social force that binds you to the courses of action demanded by that force; 'we must instill a sense of duty in our children'; 'every right implies a responsibility; every opportunity, an obligation; every possession, a duty'- John D.Rockefeller Jr) 2. (2) province, responsibility - (the proper sphere or extent of your activities; 'it was his province to take care of himself') 3. (2) responsibility, responsibleness - (a form of trustworthiness; the trait of being answerable to someone for something or being responsible for one's conduct; 'he holds a position of great responsibility'). responsibility responsibility1n responsibility2n Each 'ResponsibiltyForPastEvent' is a Responsibility that asserts that an IntelligentAgent either performed,assisted in, or allowed to happen some past event. that past Event may have been a good or bad thing. If it was a Bad thing (from someone's perspective, then that responsibility is also a Fault (see 'Fault'). An 'UndesirableEvent' is an Event that is considered an UndesirableThing by some Agent. Membership in this category reflects the viewpoint of some Agent. 'Fault' is a Responsibility for some past UndesirableEvent. Corresponds to noun sense 1 of 'fault' in WordNet: 1. (346) fault - (responsibility for a bad situation or event; 'it was John's fault') fault fault fault1n hasResponsibility relates an IntelligentAgent to some Responsibility (which points to an Action or Type of Action that agent has performed, or has a Responsibility to perform). isaResponsibilityOf relates a Responsibility (which could be a management post) to the IntelligentAgent(s) who perfromed that action or have a responsibilty to perform that Action. 'Necessary' is an AttributeValue of objects that are required to perform some action, or of Events (including PersistentStates) that must occur in order to achieve some Goal. This is one AttributeValue of the FutureSituation that is part of an Obligation. Corresponds to adjective sense 1 of 'necessary' and both senses of 'required' in WordNet: WN 'necessary' 1. (84) necessary - (absolutely essential) WN 'required': 1. (14) needed, needful, required, requisite - (necessary for relief or supply; 'provided them with all things needful') 2. (1) compulsory, mandatory, required - (required by rule; 'in most schools physical education is compulsory'; 'attendance is mandatory'; 'required reading') necessary necessary necessary1adj required required1adj required2adj A 'NecessaryFutureSituation' is a FutureSituation that is necessary to occur for some agent to achieve a Goal or satisfy an Obligation. Corresponds to only part of noun sense 2 of 'need' in WordNet - that part where a 'need' is a situation, e.g. 'his greatest need was a good day's rest': 2. (29) need, want - (anything that is necessary but lacking; 'he had sufficient means to meet his simple needs'; 'I tried to supply his wants') need need need2n A MentalObject that refers to some NecessaryFutureSituation that the Agent having the Obligation may cause to happen or may refrain from doing; if the Agent does not perform an Action to cause the FutureSituation to occur, then some negative consequence is likely to be incurred for failure to perform the Obligation. The type of negative consequence (legal punishment, social condemnation, eternal damnation, pangs of conscience, being grounded by one's parents) will be characteristic of different types of Obligation. Each Obligation is assigned by some Authority, which could be a person's own conscience (reflecting learned social mores), or the mores of the community. In the case of a Debt, the Authority may be the person owing the debt and the person to whom the debt is owed, if the debt arises from some agreement or transaction. The NecessaryFutureSituation has the AttributeValue of 'Necessary', meaning that it is required to happen in order for the agent to fulfill the Obligation. An Obligation may be created in an ObligationCreatingEvent (which see). The notion of an 'Oblilgation' is also represented in COSMO by the relation 'hasObligation' - that relation can be used to express linguistic phrases such as 'he must ...'; 'he ought to ...' 'You have an obligation to ...'. That relatikon takes 'Obligation' as its range. The notion of 'Obligation' is too primitive to be easily described by simple relations. In essense, an 'obligation' is a relation of an Agent to an Event that is derived from a belief about what kind of behavior is best in a situation. The exact formalization of this notion is still incomplete as of 0.49. See also 'ResponsibilitySituation' for a closely related concept. Linguistically an Obligation is expressed in several ways: 'Tom has an obligation to do X' 'Tom is obliged to do X' 'Tom has a duty to do X' 'Doing X is Tom's (obligation/duty).' 'Tom ought to do X' 'Tom must do X' 'Tom should do X' 'Tom is responsible for doing X' Similar phrases may be used to express an action that is not an Obligation, but is a prerequisite for some desired situation: 'In order to get into college, Tom must get good grades.' The linguistic analyzer must recognize the discourse relations that distinguish obligations from prerequisites. The type 'Obligation' in COSMO represents only true Obligations. Each instance of Obligation will represent an Action that the agent with the Obligation is obliged to perform or refrain from. When expressed linguistically, that action will be prefaced by the word 'to', e.g. 'to drive no faster than 60 miles per hour'. Cyc: A collection of microtheories; a subcollection of #$SupposedToBeMicrotheory. Each instance of the collection #$Obligation is a microtheory which contains assertions describing what some agent (the #$obligatedAgents) is obliged to do, or make true, for one or more other agents, possibly including society in general. An obligation is the most general case of some agent owing something to another. Obligations may be undertaken in conjunction with various kinds of #$Agreements. Unlike an agreement, however, an obligation need not have a second known party (though some do). An obligation can exist and be understood without identifying another particular agent as the 'holder' of the obligation - and that may be true, even if the beneficiary (#$obligationOwedTo) can be identified. For example, assuming that parents have an obligation to care for their children, it is not clear with whom a parent has 'agreed' to take care of his or her child. Some common ways to incur an obligation are through social transactions (e.g. family duties, friendship, favors) or through financial transactions (e.g. a #$PaymentObligation). In addition, obligations may be imposed on those who are subject to one or more instances of #$CodeOfConduct, e.g. #$SportsRulesOf-BoxingSportsEvent or #$OfficeCodeOfConductMt. Corresponds to senses 2 and 3 and part of sense 1 of 'obligation' and sense 2 of 'duty' in WordNet: NOTE that sense 2 is a state, and linguistically would be expressed by a phrase like 'under an obligation', rather than the word 'obligation' itself. Sense 3 should be a subtype,but is not yet represented. 1. (14) duty, responsibility, obligation - (the social force that binds you to the courses of action demanded by that force; 'we must instill a sense of duty in our children'; 'every right implies a responsibility; every opportunity, an obligation; every possession, a duty'- John D.Rockefeller Jr) 2. obligation - (the state of being obligated to do or pay something; 'he is under an obligation to finish the job') 3. obligation, indebtedness - (a personal relation in which one is indebted for a service or favor) bd58bfd0-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 obligation obligation1n obligation2n obligation3n duty duty2n ought must In COSMO 'Duty' is a synonym of 'Obligation'. ObligationArisingFromAnAgreement is a subtype of 'obligation' created by an Agreement. A specialization of #$PoweredDevice. Each instance of #$KineticEnergyPoweredDevice does not have any on-board energy source incorporated into it, at least not one supplying the bulk of the power requirements of the device. Instead, its operating power is supplied by the kinetic energy from something else in motion - such as animal muscle power (including human labor), wind energy, or hydraulic power. Specializations of this collection include #$Pulley and #$Piano-Acoustic. (Cf. #$SelfPoweredDevice, which includes, e.g., electric organs.) bd58942f-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 COSMO note: this Object can be Abstract or Physical. Cyc: A specialization of #$SpatialThing. Each instance of #$RadiallySymmetricObject is a spatial thing whose spatial parts are regularly arranged about a central axis. Instances of #$RadiallySymmetricObject include wheels and adult starfish. bd5906ff-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A ProcessedNaturalSubstance is a substance found in nature that has been removed from its natural setting or modified in place by people, for some purpose. When the modification is intended to create some substance that has a purpose, that object also becomes an ArtificialSubstance. A Conveyance is an ArtifactObject that has a primary design purpose to move objects other than itself in a controlled fashion between two locations. This is a very general category, which includes conveyor belts and other stationary conveyances, as well as the usual vehicles, airplanes, and watercraft. It does not include animals used for riding or for pulling wagons, though the wagons pulled by animals would be classified in this category. Not all Conveyances are Devices. For example, skis or roller skates are borderline Conveyances, but are not Devices. A specialization of both #$Conveyance and #$PhysicalDevice. Each instance of #$TransportationDevice is an artifact designed to move an object from one location to another, by (for example) carrying, pulling, or pushing the transported object. Instances of this collection may or may not have their own power source (see #$SelfPoweredDevice). Those that do, such as automobiles and speedboats, constitute the specialization #$TransportationDevice-Vehicle. Other transportation devices (for example, instances of #$Wheelbarrow or #$Bicycle) require an external motive force. Because #$transporter and #$transportees are specializations of #$objectMoving, it follows that any object in the role of #$transporter moves as a whole with those objects playing the role of #$transportees. Consequently, since any instance of #$TransportationDevice has playing the role of #$transporter as its intended function, stationary objects which cause motion, such as conveyor belts, escalators, rocket launchers, and slingshots, are excluded from the collection #$TransportationDevice. Although they facilitate travel, ice skates, shoes, skis and other instances of #$WearableConveyance are also excluded from the collection #$TransportationDevice, since they are devices which are worn rather than ridden on, ridden with, or ridden in. SUMO: A TransportationDevice is a Device which serves as the instrument in a Transportation Process which carries the patient of the Process from one point to another. COSMO note: In SUMO, an Oar was a subtype of TransportationDevice, but in COSMO that was not adopted. COSMO adopts the Cyc usage that a TransportationDEvice must be ridden in, ridden on, or ridden with. An Oar is an accessory part of a boat, not a TransportationDevice in itself. A TransportationDevice should have an unambiguous front and back - the front is the direction in which the transportation device typically moves. For devices that can move in either direction with equal facility, the 'front' may be designated arbitrarily, by some distinctive criterion. This provides a reference direction with which an 'orientation' can be described. isDesignedToTransport relates a type of TransportationDevice to the type of object it is designed to transport. A Device is an ArtifactObject designed to perform some action, or assist performing some action either using some internal mechanism, or merely by virtue of certain properties, such as shape and hardness. Device is very general, and includes simple things like hammers and candles. NOTE: somewhat nonintuitively, even things created by animals can be 'Devices', such as a 'SpiderWeb'. A Device is distinguished from certain other ArtifactObjects such as art objects, which do not perform a function directly, but only via mediation by a mental process. Note also that every device has an owner, even if the owner has abandoned it. COSMO NOte: in an earlier version of Cyc this is called 'PhysicalDevice': OPENCYC 1: MAY 23, 2002 A specialization of both #$Artifact and #$SolidTangibleProduct. Each instance of #$PhysicalDevice is an artifact with a relatively rigid, set shape, designed for a specific use or to perform a specific function. Specializations of #$PhysicalDevice thus include (among others) #$RoadVehicle, #$Motorboat, #$HandTool, and #$PlumbingFixture. Note that artifacts which can only be 'used' in a very loose or metaphorical sense, such as instances of #$Sculpture, #$FlowerBed, or #$Advertisement-IBT, are _not_ instances of #$PhysicalDevice. Moreover, artifacts which have a specific use or function, but which do not have a relatively rigid, set shape are _not_ instances of #$PhysicalDevice; for this reason, neither #$GasolineFuel nor #$AntiFreeze are specializations of #$PhysicalDevice. #$Device-SingleUser is a specialization of #$PhysicalDevice. Each instance of #$Device-SingleUser is a device that typically has exactly one (i.e., one and only one) user who is the only individual who derives the value of its single function at a single time. A screwdriver (an instance of #$Screwdriver) is a #$Device-SingleUser, but a grand piano (an instance of #$GrandPiano) is not. A borderline non-example is a multiple-passenger car --- although only one person operates it, several can use it at once, i.e. derive the value of its primary function (transportation). So a multiple-passenger car is not a #$Device-SingleUser. A borderline example is a telephone -- although it requires two or more users (each on telephones) for meaningful use, each phone generally has just one user at a time. So a telephone is a #$Device-SingleUser, but a telephone-circuit is not. c10093ce-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 Similar to Cyc, 'ArtificialMaterial'. But in Cyc a Substance is an object of homogeneous composition, while in COSMO it is not an Object, but a distinctive Type of its own. An ArtificialSubstance is one that does not exist in nature in the form it was created. Thus a pure version of something that exists in nature only in low concentration in mixtures would be an ArtificialSubstance. See also ProcessedNaturalSubstance, a related concept. Cyc: A collection of substances; a subcollection of #$Artifact. An instance of #$ArtificialMaterial is a portion of artificial stuff that was intentionally made by some agent(s), such as #$Plastic or #$SweetNLow. Since #$ArtificialMaterials are intentionally produced, this class does not normally include materials which are merely #$byProducts or #$wasteProducts of an intentional process. However, what is a by-product at one time or in one context may be a useful material that would count as an instance of #$ArtificialMaterial in another. COSMO note: ArtificialSubstances are resources, since they would not be artifacts unless they were considered useful for some purpose. bd590222-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A specialization of #$PhysicalDevice. Each instance of #$PoweredDevice is a device that requires some power input in order to perform its intended function(s). The power supplied might be muscle power, kinetic energy, electricity, fuel-generated, and so on. Note that #$PoweredDevice and #$NonPoweredDevice partition the collection #$PhysicalDevice. A collection of physical devices; a subcollection of #$PoweredDevice. An instance of #$FuelPoweredDevice is directly powered by combustible fuels such as gasoline, coal, and natural gas. Common examples of #$FuelPoweredDevice include automobiles with gasoline-powered engines, kerosene heaters, propane torches, and jet airplanes. COSMO note: the Cyc parent 'MechanicalDevice' has been removed because purely electronic FuelPoweredDevices using fuel cells are now possible. bd58d2b1-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 The ruling body of a GeopoliticalArea, a subtype of Organization. A HabitatRegion is a GeographicalRegion - part of the Earth's surface - that has been identified as the typical region where most of the naturally free-living individuals of a particular species of Organism will be found. Instances of this Type can be used as the object argument of the 'hasTypicalHabitat' relation, when a type of Organism is known to be located mostly in one region of the Earth. COSMO: any thing that is owned - an object, right, substance, land. Cyc: This is the collection of all things which are owned. Members of this collection may be tangible, such as real estate, or intangible, such as the rights to produce a movie based on a particular book. Ownership has complex characteristics - not yet detailed. c14442f3-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 The estate of a deceased person. This is an unusual entity which is both Property and a IntelligentAgent. As an approximation we can consider it as Property which is owned by itself, temporarily, until liquidated. @TODO: This still needs to be axiomatized (v 0.44), as well as its relation to the DeadPerson who owned it, and the Executor who manages it. In Cyc called 'Estate-LegalEntity': Cyc: An estate is a collection of property managed by an executor, a #$LegalAgent. bd61ade1-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270 A GroupOfPeople is a Group of which each component element is a Person. GroupOfPeople is a category that may be used for convenience in talking about groups of people with some common characteristic. This is PhysicalObject with mass and location, etc. It is disjoint with Organization, which is a MentalObject; however, the common reference to an organization as the sum of its members is captured by the type 'OrganizationMembership', which includes as a subtype the group of people that form the membership of an organization. A GroupOfPeople is potentially an Agent, but in COSMO we have a subtype 'MultiPersonAgent' which is used to represent a GroupOfPeople that has acgtually acted as an agent. The difference of MultiPersonAgent from GroupOfPeople is subtle - This category should be used when the agency aspect of the GroupOfPeople is salient in the discourse. Because a 'GroupOfPeople' can be quite transitory - the people in a particular elevator at a particular time - they need not be viewed as an agent. When they have in fact acted in concert, they become a 'CollectiveAgent'. A Group may be defined extensionally (by enumeration) or intensionally (e.g. all the people in a building at some time). LegalAgent is a Role played in the legal system by some entity - a Person, GroupOfPeople, Organization, or any legal entity recognized as an Agent by some legal system. Each instance of LegalEntity persists only so long as it is involved in some kind of legal transaction; in the case of a contract (e.g. employment) the legal role may persist for some time. Linguistically, the role names and fillers of roles may be used interchangeably, in describing actions, though it is the filler of the role that actually performs the action. The optimal way to represent these intimante relations is not yet decide, but for the present (v0.52), the relation 'hasRoleFiller' must be specified when describing every LegalAgent, so that the actual entity doing the action will be recognized. OPENCYC 1: MAY 23, 2002 A specialization of #$Agent. Each instance of #$LegalAgent is an agent who has some status in a particular legal system. At the very least, such an agent is recognized by some legal authority as having some kinds of rights and/or responsibilities as an agent (e.g., #$citizens of Germany), or as being subject to certain restrictions and penalties (e.g., a company that has been blacklisted by Iraq). Thus, instances of #$LegalAgent include agents that may have property rights, may be taxed, may have a government identification number, may be sued, may have an address, or may buy or sell. Note that membership in this collection is very much dependent upon context. In some societies, only adult males and various kinds of state-run organizations would be included in #$LegalAgent. COSMO note: This type is interpreted as being an overall MilitaryOrganization that has some independence, such as a government's Army, navy or Air Force. Smaller subdivisions of the main organization are represented as 'MiltaryUnit' Cyc: A specialization of #$Organization. Each instance of #$MilitaryOrganization is an organization whose function (and expertise) is the use of armed force, or the threat of such use, against enemies, especially other organized, armed enemies. A military organization includes its fighting forces and their command structure, together with dedicated support services controlled by that military command. Typically, there are special conditions in the relationships between a #$MilitaryOrganization and its workers, going beyond what is expected in work agreements in civilian settings, including strict sanctions to enforce obedience. This collection includes #$GovernmentMilitaryOrganizations such as the armies, navies, and air forces of the world's governments, and in addition private armies, rebel armies, and organized mercenary units. In SUMO called 'MilitaryForce': SUMO: MilitaryForce is the subclass of Organizations that are